Trade-offs in assessing environmental impacts

Summary The evolution of the environmental issue has moved through the early stage of technological fixes and estimable economic costs into an area of larger uncertainty and higher information costs.The economic costs of pollution control are about one percent of the GNP. The technological fixes have improved air and water quality somewhat; but in air quality little reduction in nitrogen oxides has been achieved, and in water quality about 25 percent of the water is poor or worse, with high fecal coliform bacteria.The next stage of environmental improvement is to reduce hazardous chemical elements in the environment. In these areas, the health and biological effects are still uncertain, information costs are high, and subjective judgments are common.As uncertainty and qualitative judgments have become more prominent in environmental decisions, delays have been introduced into the decision loops, raising regulatory costs, and heightening adversary stresses between business and environmentalists. The stresses place an aura of arbitrariness over regulations in a milieu where the governability of society is already questioned. This is not the time to retreat from environmental improvement, but to try to simplify the decision process. Two possible alternatives are to codify court precedents into a more rigorous reliance on agency administration law, or to revert to the common rules of civil law that complainants must show damage and cause before an award is allowable by an administrative agency. Either of these options would free the decision making process of delays and allow it to function prospectively, while allowing environmental damages from inadequate decisions to be remedied retroactively. Potential liabilities may increase, but at least the decision process could move forward without being frustrated by regulatory delays.     

Irrigation development and its environmental consequences in arid regions of India

The present paper examines the nature and dimensions of environmental transformation induced by canal irrigation in the arid region of India. The case study pertains to the Indira Gandhi Canal comand area in Rajasthan where the density and area of vegetation cover have increased due to afforestation, and the cultivated area has expanded due to irrigation. Consequently, there has been a perceptible improvement in the structure and fertility of sandy soils, but it would require a herculean effort on the part of the canal authority and local people to reduce soil erosion and siltation in the lower parts of stage I and the entire command area of stage II. Moreover, the water table has been rising rapidly throughout the command area of stage I. About half of the command area and adjoining Ghaggar basin in Ganganagar District will be facing the danger of waterlogging by the turn of the century. The incidence of irrigation-induced alkalization is higher in the lower parts of stage I. Soil alkalinity has appeared within five years of the introduction of irrigation in the interdunal basins and is manifested as a strong salt regime or calcareous pans near surface. This calls for immediate reclamation of the affected area and prevention of its expansion by altering the strategy of irrigation development, by changing cropping patterns, and by providing soil drainage.     

The expert valuation method for assessing agro‐environmental policy

The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and other conventional valuation methods of non‐market goods often prove to be unsuitable for the evaluation of the benefits of agro‐environmental policy. Therefore, a new method is introduced, according to which a group of experts jointly evaluates the strengths, weaknesses and finally monetary benefit of agro‐environmental programmes. While the methodology combines expert surveys, group discussions and CVM, its theoretical background is merit good theory. Compared to CVM, the most important practical difference in its outcome is the greater openness of the results. As an example, the Expert Valuation Method is applied to two groups of agro‐environmental policy measures in Switzerland. Suggestions for more efficient levels of reimbursements are made.     

Compensating aboriginal cultural losses: An alternative approach to assessing environmental damages

We first identify six primary problems with conventional practice: lack of context, inadequate participation from aboriginal communities, exclusion of important losses, reliance on market-based measures, neglect of uncertainty, and inadequate treatment of time. We then propose a different approach to compensation, based on insights from the decision sciences and structured decision making. Using case-study examples, we discuss how the proposed approach might address common sources of cultural loss and, in a concluding section, summarize some of the implications for compensation agreements and for environmental management practices.     

The relationships between awareness of consequences,environmental concern,and value orientations

Different people become engaged in environmental issues and perform proenvironmental behavior because they believe in and are concerned about adverse consequences of environmental problems for themselves (egoistic beliefs and concerns), others (social-altruistic beliefs and concerns), or the biosphere (biospheric beliefs and concerns). These different beliefs and concerns are assumed to derive from corresponding value orientations. Yet, distinguishing egoistic, social-altruistic, and biospheric value orientations has proved difficult in previous research. Based on a survey of 494 Swedish residents between 18 and 69 years old, the present study provides empirical support for that egoistic, social-altruistic, and biospheric environmental concerns are related to corresponding awareness-of-consequences beliefs, and that both the beliefs and environmental concerns are related to the three value types power, benevolence, and universalism.     

Application of a hierarchical framework for assessing environmental impacts of dam operation: changes in streamflow, bed mobility and recruitment of riparian trees in a western North American river

River systems have been altered worldwide by dams and diversions, resulting in a broad array of environmental impacts. The use of a process-based, hierarchical framework for assessing environmental impacts of dams is explored here in terms of a case study of the Kootenai River, western North America. The goal of the case study is to isolate and quantify the relative effects of multiple dams and other river management activities within the study area and to inform potential restoration strategies. In our analysis, first-order impacts describe broad changes in hydrology (determined from local stream gages), second-order impacts quantify resultant changes in channel hydraulics and bed mobility (predicted from a 1D flow model), and third-order impacts describe consequences for recruitment of riparian trees (recruitment box analysis). The study area is a 233km reach bounded by two dams (Libby and Corra Linn). Different times of dam emplacement (1974 and 1938, respectively) allow separation of their relative impacts. Results show significant changes in 1) the timing, magnitude, frequency, duration and rate of change of flows, 2) the spatial and temporal patterns of daily stage fluctuation, unit stream power, shear stress, and bed mobility, and 3) the potential for cottonwood recruitment (Populus spp.). We find that Libby Dam is responsible for the majority of first and second-order impacts, but that both dams diminish cottonwood recruitment; operation of Corra Linn adversely affects recruitment in the lower portion of the study reach by increasing stage recession rates during the seedling establishment period, while operation of Libby Dam affects recruitment in the middle and upper portions of the study reach by changing the timing, magnitude, and duration of flow. We also find that recent experimental flow releases initiated in the 1990s to stimulate recovery of endangered native fish may have fortuitous positive effects on cottonwood recruitment potential in the lower portion of the river. This case study demonstrates how a process-based, hierarchical framework can be used for quantifying environmental impacts of dam operation over space and time, and provides an approach for evaluating alternative management strategies.     

Reservoir sedimentation and environmental degradation: assessing trends in sediment-associated trace elements in Grenada Lake, Mississippi

Sediments impounded within flood control reservoirs are potentially important archives of environmental and geomorphic processes occurring within drainage basins. The concentrations of select sediment-associated trace elements were assessed within the impoundment of Grenada Lake, a relatively large flood control reservoir in Mississippi with a history of contaminant bioaccumulation in fish. The post-construction sediments (after 1954) are discriminated from the pre-construction sediments (before 1954) based on depth variations in sediment texture and 137Cs emissions. The concentrations of select trace elements of the post-1954 sediments all are statistically greater than the pre-1954 sediments, and these same sediments also are enriched in clay. Once these concentrations are normalized by clay content, all trace elements in the post-1954 sediments are lower in concentration than the pre-1954 normalized sediments. Moreover, the trace elements when normalized by clay or Al content show virtually no change vertically (over time) within the reservoir impoundment. This suggests that the sources of these sediment-associated trace elements within Grenada Lake, whether natural or anthropogenic, have not changed appreciably over the lifespan of the reservoir and that the degradation of sedimentologic and ecologic indices within the lake are due to the sequestration of clay or clay-sized materials.     

An integrated impact assessment and weighting methodology: evaluation of the environmental consequences of computer display technology substitution

Computer display technology is currently in a state of transition, as the traditional technology of cathode ray tubes is being replaced by liquid crystal display flat-panel technology. Technology substitution and process innovation require the evaluation of the trade-offs among environmental impact, cost, and engineering performance attributes. General impact assessment methodologies, decision analysis and management tools, and optimization methods commonly used in engineering cannot efficiently address the issues needed for such evaluation. The conventional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) process often generates results that can be subject to multiple interpretations, although the advantages of the LCA concept and framework obtain wide recognition. In the present work, the LCA concept is integrated with Quality Function Deployment (QFD), a popular industrial quality management tool, which is used as the framework for the development of our integrated model. The problem of weighting is addressed by using pairwise comparison of stakeholder preferences. Thus, this paper presents a new integrated analytical approach, Integrated Industrial Ecology Function Deployment (I2-EFD), to assess the environmental behavior of alternative technologies in correlation with their performance and economic characteristics. Computer display technology is used as the case study to further develop our methodology through the modification and integration of various quality management tools (e.g., process mapping, prioritization matrix) and statistical methods (e.g., multi-attribute analysis, cluster analysis). Life cycle thinking provides the foundation for our methodology, as we utilize a published LCA report, which stopped at the characterization step, as our starting point. Further, we evaluate the validity and feasibility of our methodology by considering uncertainty and conducting sensitivity analysis.     

Anisotropy of environmental perception caused by spatial changes during locomotion

Daily perception entails an immediate awareness of the environment surrounding the body. To explore its dynamic nature during locomotion, this study tests the hypothesis that significant changes in spatial volume induce the directional focusing (i.e., anisotropy) of environmental perception. To capture perceptual activity in its natural state, we have attempted an approach using the feeling of visual pressure (i.e., felt presence) caused by the surrounding environment. In the present experiment that uses a virtual reality setup, participants were required to continuously rate their feelings while moving along a virtual outdoor route. Their ratings were analyzed in relation to environmental measurements along the route, such as the visible area of buildings and the horizontal extent of surrounding space. The relationship between the ratings and measurements was explored by using two prediction models: with and without consideration of perceptual anisotropy. The results suggested that a consideration of anisotropy improved the prediction accuracy, thereby supporting our hypothesis.     

The impact of economic activity in Asturias on greenhouse gas emissions: consequences for environmental policy within the Kyoto Protocol framework

Climate change is one of the major worldwide environmental concerns. It is especially the case in many developed countries, where the greenhouse gas emissions responsible for this change are mainly concentrated. For the first time, the Kyoto Protocol includes an international agreement for the reduction of the net emissions of these gases. To fulfil this agreement measures designed to reduce or limit current emissions have to be brought into force. Consequently, fears have arisen about possible consequences on competitiveness and future development of manufacturing activities and the need for support mechanisms for the affected sectors is obvious. In this paper, we carry out a study of the emissions of gases responsible for climate change in Asturias (Spain), a region with an important economic presence of sectors with intensive emissions of CO(2), the chief greenhouse gas. To be precise, in the first place, the volumes of direct emissions of the said gases in 1995 were calculated, showing that the sectors most affected by the Kyoto Protocol in Asturias are iron and steel and electricity production. Secondly, input-output analysis was applied to determine the direct and indirect emissions and the direct, indirect and induced emissions of the different production sectors, respectively. The results derived from the direct and indirect emissions analysis and their comparison with the results of the former allow us to reach some conclusions and environmental policy implications.     

A method for assessing environmental risk: A case study of Green Bay,Lake Michigan,USA

The Science Advisory Board of the US Environmental Protection Agency has recommended that risk reduction strategies become the centerpiece of environmental protection. The goal in developing such strategies is to identify opportunities for greatest reduction of ecological risks. This is a perspective that is significantly more comprehensive than the traditional focus on human health risks arising from environmental degradation. The identification of ecological risks upon which environmental protection efforts should be focused requires an ecological risk assessment methodology that is based on anthropogenic stressors affecting an ecosystem and a set of impaired use criteria. A methodology based on this concept is developed and discussed in this article. The methodology requires that risk values be assigned to each ecosystem stressor-impaired use pair that reflect the degree to which the given stressor contributes to ecosystem risk as measured by the given impaired use criterion. Once these data are available, mathematical analyses based on concepts from fuzzy set theory are performed to obtain a ranking of ecosystem stressors. The methodology has been tested by applying it to a case study involving Green Bay of Lake Michigan. A workshop was held in which 11 persons with extensive knowledge of the Green Bay ecosystem determined risk values through a group-consensus process. The analytical portion of the methodology was then used to rank the ecosystem risks (stressors) from several perspectives, including prevention management and remediation management. The overall conclusion of the workshop participants was that the fuzzy set decision model is a useful and effective methodology for differentiating environmental risk.     

良好的机遇严峻的挑战--我国水泥环保企业面临的机遇和挑战及发展对策论

文章论述了我国水泥环保产业的发展现状、存在的问题，针对水泥环保企业面临的发展机遇和挑战，提出了对策建议。     

The environmental awareness of environmental protection bureaucrats in the People's Republic of China

Summary Over 180 environmental protection bureaucrats in the People's Republic of China were individually interviewed to determine their environmental awareness and their attitudes towards the environment. The study indicates that environmental protection bureaucrats in China have conflicting attitudes towards the relationship between man and nature, and between economic growth and environmental protection. However, they show a strong faith in science and technology's ability to solve environmental problems. The perception that too-harsh environmental protection regulations would reduce the growth potential of the economy is so predominant that it poses a serious threat to the environment of the three municipalities under investigation. It is argued that environmental management is a matter of managing human beings. To understand people, it is imperative to gain a thorough understanding of their worldview.Dr Koon-Kwai Wong is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geography and the Geography option co-ordinator on the China Studies course at Hong Kong Baptist University. Dr Hon S. Chan is an Associate Professor in the Department of Public and Social Administration at the City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong.     

A framework for assessing the sustainability of brownfield developments

In England, the development of urban brownfield sites is a significant planning policy aimed at supporting urban regeneration and protecting the countryside. Brownfield sites are required, in policy, to be developed in a sustainable way. However, determining what this means in practice is unclear. This paper presents a framework for assessing the sustainability of brownfield developments, devised to clarify the stakeholders in land reuse and establish how sustainability can be achieved on reused sites. The framework has been used in research investigating the sustainability of five brownfield developments in England. The performance of the framework in this research is assessed and its potential practical use outlined.     

Crisis in environmental management of the Soviet Union

The prevailing system of environmental management strongly depends on the economic and political structures of a country and is influenced by the current condition of them. Environmental degradation in the Soviet Union has been caused mainly by the political and economic misconceptions listed in this article. With the transformation of its state order to the model of Western democracies, the Soviet Union is experiencing a deep economic crisis of restructuring, reflected in a parallel crisis in its system of environmental management, which is manifest in the form of rapid transformation. This is characterized by the contradiction of the state’s old administrative institutions, which still exist, with the efforts to use market mechanisms of environmental control. Such methods include various fees and payments for the use of natural resources or for pollution and creation of specialized regional funds and banks to finance environmental programs. All these occur in the context of the strengthening of regional sovereignty, the introduction of self-accounting for economic units, the adoption of comprehensive legal enactments, and the setting up of an efficient administrative system of their enforcement. Public activism, as one of the principal actors in this structure, also has undergone quick maturation. Nevertheless the future development of the new Soviet system of environmental control remains uncertain because of the present unpredictability of the overall situation in the short run.     

Better environmental future in Europe through environmental auditing?

environmental auditing must be rejected if the aim is to make companies introduce a specific management concept. Rather, it is preferable to leave the search for effective environmental protection strategies to the competitive system, especially since the criteria for environment-oriented management in the European Community audit proposal are without substance. Environmental auditing can, however, assume a complementary function in the framework of an overall environmental policy if it is designed as an information tool with which companies provide information on the development of environmental problems deriving from their manufacturing processes and products. However, the model required to establish a framework of quantity and evaluation criteria is not available. Further, auditing does not cover products. Similarly, there are no proposals defining the evaluation procedure for ecological resource scarcity. Thus, the attempt of the Commission of the European Communities to create the elementary prerequisites for consistent and verifiable environmental auditing in the corporate sector has failed.