An investigation of distributed lag models in the context of air pollution and mortality time series analysis

In particulate air pollution mortality time series studies, the particulate air pollution exposure measure used is typically the current day's or the previous day's air pollution concentration or a multi-day moving average air pollution concentration. Distributed lag models (DLMs) that allow for differential air pollution effects that are spread over multiple days are seen as an improvement over using a single- or multi-day moving average air pollution exposure measure. However, at the current time, the statistical properties of DLMs as a measure of air pollution exposure have not been investigated. In this paper, a simulation study is used to investigate the performance of DLMs as a measure of air pollution exposure in comparison with single- and multi-day moving average air pollution exposure measures under various forms for the true effect of air pollution on mortality. The simulation study shows that DLMs offer a more robust measure of the effect of air pollution on mortality and avoid the potential for a large negative bias compared with single- or multi-day moving average air pollution exposure measures. This is important information. In many U.S. cities, particulate air pollution concentrations are observed only once every six days, meaning it is often only possible to use single-day particulate air pollution exposure measures. The results from this paper will help quantify the magnitude of the negative bias that can result from using single-day exposure measures. The implications of this work for future air pollution mortality time series studies are discussed. The data used in this paper are concurrent daily time series of mortality, weather, and particulate air pollution from Cook County, IL, for the period 1987-1994.     

Research on the strategic interaction of China’s regional air pollution regulation: spatial interpretation of “incomplete implementation” of regulatory policies

Research on the current strategic interaction of local governments in air pollution control is a key breakthrough. Based on the theory of Chinese style decentralization, this paper puts forward a theoretical framework to explain the incomplete enforcement of air pollution regulation. Using the panel data of 30 provinces in China from 2004 to 2016, this study employs spatial Durbin model, empirically tested the inter-regional strategic interaction of air pollution regulation, and further explores the effect of performance assessment indicators on this strategic interaction. The main conclusions of this paper are as follows: (1) Empirical results confirm that adjacent provinces do exist strategic interaction of air pollution regulation. Furthermore, the strategic interaction of air pollution regulation belongs to complementarities. (2) Meanwhile, from a regional perspective, due to the low level of economic development stock and the low level of air pollution, the interaction effect of air pollution regulation strategies in northwestern region is weaker than that in southeastern region. (3) In addition, under the national sample and the southeast sample, the air environment performance assessment indicators weaken the inter-regional strategic interaction of air pollution regulation, and economic performance assessment indicators on the contrary.

     

Deconstruction of annoyance due to air pollution by multiple correspondence analyses

Annoyance caused by air pollution is a matter of public health as it can cause stress and ill-health and affect quality of life, among other burdens. The aim of this study is to apply the multiple correspondence analyses (MCA) technique as a differential tooling to explore relationships between variables that can influence peoples’ behaviour concerning annoyance caused by air pollution. Data were collected through a survey on air pollution, environmental issues and quality of life. Face-to-face survey studies were conducted in two industrialized urban areas (Vitoria in Brazil and Dunkirk in France). These two regions were chosen as their inhabitants often report feeling annoyed by air pollution, and both regions have similar industrial characteristics. The results showed a progressive correspondence between levels of annoyance and other active variables in the “air pollution” factor group: as the levels of annoyance increased, the levels of the other qualitative variables (importance of air quality, perceived exposure to industrial risk, assessment of air quality, perceived air pollution) also increased. Respondents who reported feeling annoyed by air pollution also thought that air quality was very important and were very concerned about exposure to industrial risks. Furthermore, they often assessed air quality as horrible, and they could frequently perceive air pollution by dust, odours and decreased visibility. The results also showed a statistically significant association between occurrence of allergies and high levels of annoyance.

     

Evaluation of Nationwide Health Costs of Air Pollution and Cigarette Smoking

Total nationwide health costs due to air pollution and cigarette smoking were evaluated by determining the percentages of the total respiratory disease cost for 1970 due to the separate and the synergistic effects of smoking and air pollution. Previous studies known to the authors did not properly account for the well established synergistic effect of smoking and air pollution, and also assumed that the urban factor (ratio of urban incidence to rural incidence) was due primarily or exclusively to air pollution. Recent evidence strongly indicates that air pollution is not the primary cause of the urban factor, although it does make a contribution. Taking a minimum of 10% and a maximum of 50% of the urban factor to be due to air pollution, the total 1970 nationwide health cost due to air pollution was found to be between $62 million and $311 million, and the nationwide health cost due to cigarette smoking was found to be $4.23 billion.     

Perceptions of air pollution during the work-related commute by adults in Queensland,Australia

BackgroundThis study examines perceived health effect risks from air pollution during the work-related commute by socio-demographic and travel mode variables.MethodsPopulation-representative survey data were collected by telephone from 745 adults from Queensland, Australia. Variables assessed included socio-demographics, usual work travel mode, commute perceptions, and perceived health effects associated with air pollution during the work-related commute.ResultsApproximately 45% of the sample perceived air pollution negatively affected health outcomes when commuting to/from work, yet only 13% recognised air pollution as a major barrier to walking or cycling to/from work. No relationships existed between usual travel mode to/from work and perceived health risks associated with air pollution. Those higher educated or living in major cities were more likely to recognise air pollution harmed their health during their work-related commute when compared to respective referent categories (p ≤ 0.05).ConclusionsRecognition of health risks from air pollution during the work-related commute was high, and awareness did not differ by travel mode. For the majority, air pollution was not a primary barrier for walking or cycling to/from work.     

Determinants of perceived air pollution annoyance and association between annoyance scores and air pollution (PM2.5, NO2) concentrations in the European EXPOLIS study

Apart from its traditionally considered objective impacts on health, air pollution can also have perceived effects, such as annoyance. The psychological effects of air pollution may often be more important to well-being than the biophysical effects. Health effects of perceived annoyance from air pollution are so far unknown. More knowledge of air pollution annoyance levels, determinants and also associations with different air pollution components is needed. In the European air pollution exposure study, EXPOLIS, the air pollution annoyance as perceived at home, workplace and in traffic were surveyed among other study objectives. Overall 1736 randomly drawn 25–55-yr-old subjects participated in six cities (Athens, Basel, Milan, Oxford, Prague and Helsinki). Levels and predictors of individual perceived annoyances from air pollution were assessed. Instead of the usual air pollution concentrations at fixed monitoring sites, this paper compares the measured microenvironment concentrations and personal exposures of PM_2.5 and NO₂ to the perceived annoyance levels. A considerable proportion of the adults surveyed was annoyed by air pollution. Female gender, self-reported respiratory symptoms, downtown living and self-reported sensitivity to air pollution were directly associated with high air pollution annoyance score while in traffic, but smoking status, age or education level were not significantly associated. Population level annoyance averages correlated with the city average exposure levels of PM_2.5 and NO₂. A high correlation was observed between the personal 48-h PM_2.5 exposure and perceived annoyance at home as well as between the mean annoyance at work and both the average work indoor PM_2.5 and the personal work time PM_2.5 exposure. With the other significant determinants (gender, city code, home location) and home outdoor levels the model explained 14% (PM_2.5) and 19% (NO₂) of the variation in perceived air pollution annoyance in traffic. Compared to Helsinki, in Basel and Prague the adult participants were more annoyed by air pollution while in traffic even after taking the current home outdoor PM_2.5 and NO₂ levels into account.     

The development of effects-based air quality management regimes

This paper considers the evolution of attempts to control and manage air pollution, principally but not exclusively focussing upon the challenge of managing air pollution in urban environments. The development and implementation of a range of air pollution control measures are considered. Initially the measures implemented primarily addressed point sources, a small number of fuel types and a limited number of pollutants. The adequacy of such a source-control approach is assessed within the context of a changing and challenging air pollution climate. An assessment of air quality management in the United Kingdom over a 50-year timeframe exemplifies the range of issues and challenges in contemporary air quality management. The need for new approaches is explored and the development and implementation of an effects-based, risk management system for air quality regulation is evaluated.     

随身自动空气净化处理器的研究

随身自动空气净化器,采用了活性炭、光催化技术相结合的空气过滤装置.空气污染传感器与单片机组成空气质量监测电路,当空气污染超标时,产生语音提示,液晶屏显示空气质量的等级,自动(或手动)控制引风机工作,供给个人清新无污染的空气.     

我国室内空气污染现状、成因与对策

室内空气污染严重影响公众健康 ,已经受到广泛关注。本文分析了我国室内空气污染的现状和成因 ,并从法规建设、监督管理、科学研究和宣传教育等方面介绍了我国控制室内空气污染的对策措施     

Evaluation of Episode Control Schemes Through Air Quality Data Analysis

Prediction performance of various air pollution episode models are first compared with that of a persistence model which is based on the assumption that present concentrations persist to a future time. The comparisons are made by computing a correlation coefficient for different lead times between the observed and predicted values, and an auto-correlation function of the air quality data to which the episode model is applied. The persistence of high levels of air pollution is next examined, using existing air quality data, by constructing frequency distributions of air pollution episode duration for various concentration thresholds. Based on the results of persistence analysis, the flaws of currently used episode management schemes are discussed and some alternative episode management schemes are presented. Methodologies and parameters to evaluate the anticipated performances of episode management schemes are developed and some examples are worked out. In conclusion, it is suggested that a combination of episode persistence analysis and air pollution meteorological forecasting could lead to a workable air pollution episode management scheme.     

The influence of meteorological conditions and stringent emission control on high TSP episodes in istanbul

Istanbul has faced serious air pollution problems since the mid-80s. This is mainly due to particulate air pollution coming from poor quality lignite in areas, which are heavily populated and industrialized. As a consequence of severe air pollution problems, stringent control on the emissions in the city started in the year of 1994. In this work, in order to study the relationship between emissions and meteorological conditions, an assessment of air pollution episodes and air pollution potential in the city is presented for the terms at the changed emission schedule as the influence of an emission reduction strategy. The influence of meteorological conditions on the TSP (total suspended particulates) levels is considered for two consecutive winter periods. On this occasion, the city has faced different TSP levels and episode characteristics depending on stringent emission reductions covering the banned, poor-quality lignite and fuel switching. For this purpose, climatological conditions and air quality analyses were performed.     

Analysis of the impact of the forest fires in August 2007 on air quality of Athens using multi-sensor aerosol remote sensing data,meteorology and surface observations

Data from multiple satellite remote sensors are integrated with ground measurements and meteorological data to study the impact of Greek forest fires in August 2007 on the air quality in Athens. Two pollution episodes were identified by ground PM₁₀ measurements between August 23 and September 4. In the first episode, Evia and Peloponnese fires contributed substantially to the air pollution levels in Athens. In the second episode, transport of industrial pollution from Italy and Western Europe as well as forest fires in Albania contributed substantially to the air pollution levels in Athens. Local air pollution sources also contributed to the observed particle levels during these episodes. Satellite data provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of particle concentrations, thus they can be used identify pollution sources. In spite of a few weaknesses in current satellite data products identified in this analysis, combining satellite aerosol remote sensing data with trajectory models and ground measurements is a powerful tool to study intensive particle pollution events such as forest fires.     

Administration of Local Air Pollution Control Programs (Salaries and Qualifications of Personnel)

An attempt to develop medical air quality guides are recently made in Sweden. Even if air pollution is present in only fairly small amounts, problems frequently arise especially concerning nuisance reactions. Present regulations do not provide a basis for a standardized treatment of air pollution problems. The national air pollution situation was discussed and a survey of the literature was performed to collect data concerning current air pollutants. For sulfur dioxide a 30 day value of eight pphm and a two hour value of 25 pphm was recommended. It was further recommended to keep the carbon monoxide concentration as low as possible with an eight hour value of 30 ppm as an absolute maximum. For carcinogenic and mutagenic substances it was also recommended to keep the values as low as possible. Although available data did not support complete medical guides in all cases it was decided rather to have the above approximations than to leave the air pollution situation uncontrolled.     

Numerical simulation of photochemical smog formation in Athens, Greece—A case study

High emission levels and the unfavourable topography are the main reasons for the alarming photochemical air pollution levels in Athens. An analysis of available air quality data proves that air pollution levels in Athens are largely affected by local wind circulation systems. The most frequent of these systems is dominated by the phenomenon of the sea breeze. Severe air pollution episodes occur, however, primarily under synoptic situations leading to stagnant conditions in the atmosphere over Athens. Photosmog formation in the Athens Basin is studied with the photochemical dispersion model MARS. The implicit solution algorithm incorporated in MARS is characterized by a variable time increment and a variable order. This solver allows avoiding unnecessary operator splitting by a coupled treatment of vertical diffusion and chemical kinetics. In this paper, MARS is used to analyse the situation on 25 May 1990, a day for which very high air pollution levels were reported in Athens. The simulation results elucidate the characteristics of a photosmog episode under stagnant conditions in Athens. In general, the model results reproduce satisfactorily the observed air pollution patterns.     

Self-organized criticality of air pollution

In this work, we investigate the frequency-size distribution of three pollution indexes (PM₁₀, NO₂ and SO₂) in Shanghai. They are well approximated by power-law distributions, which suggest that air pollution might be a manifestation of self-organized criticality. We introduce a new numerical sandpile model with decay coefficient to reveal inherent dynamic mechanism of air pollution. Only changing the number value of decay coefficient of pollutants, this model gives a good simulation of three pollutants' statistical characteristic. This work shows that it is the self-organized criticality of the air pollutants that results in the temporal variation of air pollutant indexes and the minor air pollution sources can trigger the occurrence of large pollutant events by SOC behavior.     

Air pollution reduction via use of green energy sources for electricity and hydrogen production

The implementation of renewable wind and solar energy sources instead of fossil fuels to produce such energy carriers as electricity and hydrogen facilitates reductions in air pollution emissions. Unlike from traditional fossil fuel technologies, air pollution emissions from renewable technologies are associated mainly with the construction of facilities. With present costs of wind and solar electricity, it is shown that, when electricity from renewable sources replaces electricity from natural gas, the cost of air pollution emission abatement is more than ten times less than the cost if hydrogen from renewable sources replaces hydrogen produced from natural gas. When renewable-based hydrogen is used instead of gasoline in a fuel cell vehicle, the cost of air pollution emissions reduction approaches the same value as for renewable-based electricity only if the fuel cell vehicle efficiency exceeds significantly (i.e., by about two times) that of an internal combustion vehicle. The results provide the basis for a useful approach to an optimal strategy for air pollution mitigation.     

Air pollution forecast in cities by an air pollution index highly correlated with meteorological variables

There are many different air pollution indexes which represent the global urban air pollution situation. The daily index studied here is also highly correlated with meteorological variables and this index is capable of identifying those variables that significantly affect the air pollution. The index is connected with attention levels of NO₂, CO and O₃ concentrations. The attention levels are fixed by a law proposed by the Italian Ministries of Health and Environment. The relation of that index with some meteorological variables is analysed by the linear multiple partial correlation statistical method. Florence, Milan and Vicence were selected to show the correlation among the air pollution index and the daily thermic excursion, the previous day's air pollution index and the wind speed. During the January–March period the correlation coefficient reaches 0.85 at Milan. The deterministic methods of forecasting air pollution concentrations show very high evaluation errors and are applied on limited areas around the observation stations, as opposed to the whole urban areas. The global air pollution, instead of the concentrations at specific observation stations, allows the evaluation of the level of the sanitary risk regarding the whole urban population.     

Epa Looks At “Fugitive Emissions”

The various aspects of two similar but indeed different air pollution problems are discussed. Both fugitive emissions (industrial) and fugitive dust emissions represent problems affecting attainment of national standards. Both are difficult to quantify so as to determine the relative magnitude of the problem. Both have been generally overlooked in the past in relation to developing an effective and widespread air pollution control program. Both problems will generally require the use of non-conventional air pollution control measures. Both are also becoming the subject of more intensive investigation as more knowledge is being gathered to implicate such emissions as significant air pollution problems.     

An interprovincial cooperative game model for air pollution control in China

The noncooperative air pollution reduction model (NCRM) that is currently adopted in China to manage air pollution reduction of each individual province has inherent drawbacks. In this paper, we propose a cooperative air pollution reduction game model (CRM) that consists of two parts: (1) an optimization model that calculates the optimal pollution reduction quantity for each participating province to meet the joint pollution reduction goal; and (2) a model that distribute the economic benefit of the cooperation (i.e., pollution reduction cost saving) among the provinces in the cooperation based on the Shapley value method. We applied the CRM to the case of SO₂ reduction in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region in China. The results, based on the data from 2003–2009, show that cooperation helps lower the overall SO₂ pollution reduction cost from 4.58% to 11.29%. Distributed across the participating provinces, such a cost saving from interprovincial cooperation brings significant benefits to each local government and stimulates them for further cooperation in pollution reduction. Finally, sensitivity analysis is performed using the year 2009 data to test the parameters’ effects on the pollution reduction cost savings.

Implications: China is increasingly facing unprecedented pressure for immediate air pollution control. The current air pollution reduction policy does not allow cooperation and is less efficient. In this paper we developed a cooperative air pollution reduction game model that consists of two parts: (1) an optimization model that calculates the optimal pollution reduction quantity for each participating province to meet the joint pollution reduction goal; and (2) a model that distributes the cooperation gains (i.e., cost reduction) among the provinces in the cooperation based on the Shapley value method. The empirical case shows that such a model can help improve efficiency in air pollution reduction. The result of the model can serve as a reference for Chinese government pollution reduction policy design.     

Review of Statistics of Extreme Values with Applications to Air Quality Data

In the field of air pollution control, the rare event is often of more significance than the common event. This is evidenced by the content of air quality standards which define acceptable upper limits of air pollution concentrations and acceptable frequencies with which such concentrations can be exceeded. The principles of extreme value statistics provide important tools for analyzing air quality data in an appropriately significant context.

Part II of the paper presents applications of the theory to air quality data. First, application is made to decisions regarding the length of air monitoring experiments and the length of data records for dis-person analyses. The theory is then applied to the analysis of long term air pollution data collected by the South Coast Air Pollution Control District. The interrelations between extremes from monthly and annual samples are noted and are shown to be consistent with theory.