A review of contamination of surface-, ground-, and drinking water in Sweden by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are found in aquatic systems, flora, and fauna worldwide. These potentially harmful compounds are also frequently detected in Sweden and have already resulted in severe problems for public drinking water supply, i.e., some wells had to be closed due to high PFAS concentrations both in raw water and produced drinking water. Knowledge on PFAS occurrence in Sweden is still quite low, although monitoring is currently ongoing. This work describes potential sources for PFASs to enter the drinking water supply in Sweden and compares different occurrences of PFASs in raw and drinking water in the country. Moreover, the monitoring history, the legal situation, and remediation actions taken are presented. Finally, future challenges and the way forward in Sweden are discussed.     

水体中卤乙酸(HAAs)的产生、测定方法与控制途径

对饮用水中普遍存在的消毒副产物形式HAAs的产生、测定方法以及控制途径进行了阐述.并对影响HAAs生成的主要因素投氯量、溴的影响以及卤乙酸副产物(HAAFP)含量等进行了分析.生物活性炭技术是一种非常有效的控制HAAs含量和减少HAAFP含量的方法,对于保障饮用水安全性具有重要意义.     

水体中卤乙酸（HAAs）的产生、测定方法与控制途径

对饮用水中普遍存在的消毒副产物形式HAAs的产生、测定方法以及控制途径进行了阐述。并对影响HAAs生成的主要因素投氯量、溴的影响以及卤乙酸副产物（HAAFP）含量等进行了分析。生物活性炭技术是一种非常有效的控制HAAs含量和减少HAAFP含量的方法，对于保障饮用水安全性具有重要意义。     

Contamination status of arsenic and other trace elements in drinking water and residents from Tarkwa, a historic mining township in Ghana

This study was conducted to assess the contamination status of 22 trace elements, especially As in water and residents in Tarkwa, a historic mining town in Ghana. Drinking water and human urine samples were collected from Tarkwa in addition to control samples taken from Accra, the capital of Ghana in March, 2004. Concentrations of As and Mn in some drinking water samples from Tarkwa were found above the WHO drinking water guidelines posing a potential health risk for the people. A potential health risk of As and Mn is a concern for the people consuming the contaminated water in this area. No significant difference of As concentrations in human urine between mining town (Tarkwa) and control site (Accra) was observed. Although As concentrations in drinking water in Tarkwa were low, urinary As levels were comparable to those reported in highly As-affected areas in the world. These results suggest the presence of other sources of As contamination in Ghana. This is the first study on multi-elemental contamination in drinking water and human from a mining town in Ghana.     

Halogenated acetaldehydes: analysis, stability and fate in drinking water

In our previous studies, chloral hydrate has been the only chlorinated acetaldehyde determined in drinking water because authentic standards of other related haloacetaldehydes were not available. Recently, standards of dichloroacetaldehyde, bromochloroacetaldehyde, dibromoacetaldehyde, bromodichloroacetaldehyde, chlorodibromoacetaldehyde, and tribromoacetaldehyde have become available commercially. They were obtained and verified for purity and stability using a dual-column GC-ECD system. Each commercial standard was found to contain small amounts of the other target haloacetaldehydes (HAs). The stability of the HAs stock solutions was solvent dependent: in acetone, the brominated species partially degraded to bromoacetone, while all target HAs were stable in MTBE for up to 8 months. The analytical parameters, required for the quantification of HAs in water, were determined and used to evaluate the stability of the HAs in water. Under the conditions of the sampling protocol (field pH adjustment to pH 4.5 and storage at 4 degrees C), the target HAs were stable in water for up to 14 days. However, at typical drinking water pH and temperature conditions, the stability varied with the HA species, pH, temperature and storage period. The trihalogenated acetaldehydes degraded, in part, to their corresponding trihalomethanes (THMs) at increasing pH and temperature. Most target HAs were detected in drinking water samples collected from various Canadian drinking water systems, and the speciation was dependent on water parameters (e.g. bromide concentration) and treatment processes. From the water samples analysed, chloral hydrate ranged between 7% and 51% of the total HAs (w/w). The weigh ratio of total HAs to total THMs (10-46%) indicated that HAs contributed significantly to the pool of DBPs in drinking water.     

Tight sorption of arsenic,cadmium, mercury,and lead by edible activated carbon and acid-processed montmorillonite clay

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Heavy metal exposure in humans and animals commonly occurs through the consumption of metal-contaminated drinking water and food. Although many...     

MTBE in California Drinking Water: An Analysis of Patterns and Trends

Over the past decade, there has been much publicity surrounding the impact of Methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE) on drinking water supplies in the United States. In California, the presence of MTBE in groundwater and drinking water has led to a ban on the future use of MTBE in gasoline. Other states, such as those in the northeast, are also seeking ways to reduce or eliminate the use of MTBE due to perceived threats to the environment and public health. Despite claims about the incidence of MTBE in drinking water, no comprehensive characterization has been conducted on the available drinking water monitoring data. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the MTBE drinking water data compiled by the California Department of Health Services (CDHS) from 1995 to 2000. We find that MTBE was detected in about 1.3% of all drinking water samples, 2.5% of drinking water sources, and 3.7% of drinking water systems in California over this 6-year period. Our analysis reveals that many drinking water sources are not sampled routinely for MTBE, and in those sources that appear to be affected by MTBE, the compound is not consistently detected. The majority of MTBE detections are also concentrated in several geographic areas, which contain about 9-21% of the total California population. Average detected MTBE concentrations have decreased significantly since 1995 and 1996, ranging from 5 to 15 ppb over the last 3 years depending on the outcome of interest. Of the samples in which MTBE was present above the analytical detection limit, the concentrations in approximately 73% of drinking water samples and 86% of drinking water sources and systems were below the State's primary health-based standard of 13 ppb. Our findings suggest that, although some drinking water supplies in California have been affected by MTBE, the majority of drinking water sources and systems either have not been affected at all or contain MTBE at concentrations below levels that are likely to be of health concern.     

MTBE in California Drinking Water: An Analysis of Patterns and Trends

Over the past decade, there has been much publicity surrounding the impact of Methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE) on drinking water supplies in the United States. In California, the presence of MTBE in groundwater and drinking water has led to a ban on the future use of MTBE in gasoline. Other states, such as those in the northeast, are also seeking ways to reduce or eliminate the use of MTBE due to perceived threats to the environment and public health. Despite claims about the incidence of MTBE in drinking water, no comprehensive characterization has been conducted on the available drinking water monitoring data. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the MTBE drinking water data compiled by the California Department of Health Services (CDHS) from 1995 to 2000. We find that MTBE was detected in about 1.3% of all drinking water samples, 2.5% of drinking water sources, and 3.7% of drinking water systems in California over this 6-year period. Our analysis reveals that many drinking water sources are not sampled routinely for MTBE, and in those sources that appear to be affected by MTBE, the compound is not consistently detected. The majority of MTBE detections are also concentrated in several geographic areas, which contain about 9–21% of the total California population. Average detected MTBE concentrations have decreased significantly since 1995 and 1996, ranging from 5 to 15 ppb over the last 3 years depending on the outcome of interest. Of the samples in which MTBE was present above the analytical detection limit, the concentrations in approximately 73% of drinking water samples and 86% of drinking water sources and systems were below the State's primary health-based standard of 13 ppb. Our findings suggest that, although some drinking water supplies in California have been affected by MTBE, the majority of drinking water sources and systems either have not been affected at all or contain MTBE at concentrations below levels that are likely to be of health concern.     

Probabilistic health risk assessment of nitrosamines in drinking water of Shaoxing,Zhejiang, China

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Nitrosamines (NAms) are potent genotoxic and carcinogenic but widely detected in drinking water. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of...     

Investigation of the behaviour of haloketones in water samples

The behaviour of the haloketones (HKs) 1,1-Dichloropropanone (1,1-DCP), 1,1,1-Trichloropropanone (1,1,1-TCP) and 1,3-Dichloropropanone (1,3-DCP) in ultrapure water solutions and in fortified drinking water samples was investigated. Their concentrations were determined at regular time intervals by the use of a gas chromatography-electron capture detector (GC-ECD) method. Two different temperatures were studied. The results have shown that HKs decompose both in ultrapure water solutions and in drinking water samples. The decomposition rates are higher in the drinking water samples, especially at higher temperature. 1,1,1-TCP is the compound which decomposes fastest followed by 1,3-DCP and 1,1-DCP. Chloroform was formed both in the ultrapure water solutions and in the drinking water samples, probably due to the decomposition of 1,1,1-TCP. In the drinking water samples, formation of chloral hydrate was also observed.     

Screening of endocrine-disrupting phenols, herbicides, steroid estrogens, and estrogenicity in drinking water from the waterworks of 35 Italian cities and from PET-bottled mineral water

We investigated contamination by endocrine-disrupting chemicals in drinking water from 35 major Italian cities and five popular Italian brands of bottled mineral water. The quality of Italian drinking water was assessed by combing chemical analysis with bioassay to quantify specific estrogenic contaminants and to characterize the actual biological effect of the mixture of chemicals present in drinking water including the contribution of not targeted compounds. The selected contaminants were natural and synthetic steroid estrogens, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, linuron, triazine herbicides, and their metabolites. A specific analytical method was developed based on solid phase extraction of 1 L of water and concentration to 100 μL for quantification by electrospray ionization liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, achieving quantification limits of 0.05–0.36 ng/L for herbicides and 0.64–7.70 ng/L for steroids and phenols. No steroid estrogens were detected in any of the samples, while bisphenol A and nonylphenols were detected in the ranges of 0.82–102.00 and 10.30–84.00 ng/L respectively. Herbicides and their degradation products, when present, were found from slightly above the quantification limits up to 49.91 ng/L, mainly from cities in northern Italy. Chemical analyses were complemented by the performance of a bioassay for the determination of the estrogenic activity in the extracts based on the transactivation of estrogen receptor α-transfected reporter HeLa-ERE-Luciferase-Neomycin cell line. Activity was generally low with maximum estrogenicity of 13.6 pg/L estradiol equivalents.     

Analysis of annual fluctuations in the content of phenol,chlorophenols and their derivatives in chlorinated drinking waters

Purpose  

Chlorophenols are widely represented, toxic, and persistent environmental pollutants. In this work, we analyzed annual fluctuations in the content of phenol, guaiacol, chlorophenols, chlorocatechols, and chlorinated methoxyphenols in drinking water collected in Warsaw and Tomaszów Mazowiecki (Poland). Moreover, the effect of dissolved organic matter content on the occurrence of phenolic compounds in drinking water was studied.     

N-nitrosodimethylamine in drinking water using a rapid,solid-phase extraction method

A simple, rapid method for the extraction of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from drinking and surface waters was developed using Ambersorb 572. Development of an alternative method to classical liquid-liquid extraction techniques was necessary to handle the workload presented by implementation of a provincial guideline of 9 ppt for drinking water and a regulatory level of 200 ppt for effluents. A granular adsorbent, Ambersorb 572, was used to extract the NDMA from the water in the sample bottle. The NDMA was extracted from the Ambersorb 572 with dichloromethane in the autosampler vial. Method characteristics include a precision of 4 % for replicate analyses, an accuracy of 6 % at 10 ppt and a detection limit of 1.0 ppt NDMA in water. Comparative data between the Ambersorb 572 method and liquid-liquid extraction showed excellent agreement (average difference of 12 %). With the Ambersorb 572 method, dichloromethane use has been reduced by a factor of 1,000 and productivity has been increased by a factor of 3–4. Monitoring of a drinking water supply showed rapidly changing concentrations of NDMA from day to day.     

Formation of halogenated acetaldehydes, and occurrence in Canadian drinking water

Controlled laboratory chlorination of acetaldehyde (ACD) under typical drinking water conditions (pH 6.7, 7.6 and 8.8, and temperature 4 degrees C and 21 degrees C) revealed that the formation of chloral hydrate (CH), the most common halogenated acetaldehyde (HAs), increased with contact time (0-10 days). However, at increased pH and temperature, CH reached maximum levels and subsequently broke down partially to chloroform and other unidentified compounds. After 10 days contact time, a maximum of 63% (molar) of the initial ACD consumed were converted into CH or chloroform (TCM). Various surveys of drinking water systems indicated that ACD is not the only precursor of CH. A suite of aldehydes (including ACD), and chlorinated disinfection by-products (including TCM and CH) were found in most distribution systems. The levels of bromide in source water impacted speciation of HAs. In addition to CH, brominated and other mixed (Cl/Br) acetaldehydes were detected in most samples; the speciation of HAs and THMs followed comparable trends. Similar to chloroform for trihalomethanes, CH contributed from as low as 5% to up to 60% of the total HAs. The bromine incorporation factors (BIF) in THMs and HAs were shown to increase with increasing bromide ion concentrations in the source water. Brominated THMs are more readily formed than their HA analogues; in fact, BIF values for THMs were 2-3 times higher than for the HAs. It was found that HAs may be as high as THMs in some drinking waters. As a result, the determination of the other target HAs, in addition to CH, is necessary for a better assessment of the pool of disinfection by-products in drinking water.     

Heavy-metal pollution and arseniasis in Hetao region, China

In the Hetao region in northern China drinking water has become toxic due to the presence of arsenic (As) and other heavy metals in soil and water. The 7 counties in this region cover approx. 6100 km2, and in all 180,000 people are suffering from the toxic effects of contaminated drinking water. However, very few studies have been carried out in the region on the possible source of this arsenic. This paper is based on studies of the distribution of heavy metals in soil and groundwater. Results show that the average content of As is 0.483 microg g(-1) in groundwater and 13.74 microg g(-1) in soil. These levels are higher than the drinking water standard of 0.05 microg g(-1) recommended by the World Health Organization in 1984, and for the local background level in soil (5.20 microg g(-1)). This heavy-metal content in water and soil decreases gradually with increasing distance from the contaminated area, which fronts the Yin Mountains. The ratios of the Pb and Sr isotope contents in water are closely related to the ratios found in the water of the regions' mining area, and the ratios in soil correspond to the content of As in groundwater and soil in the area where pathological changes have been detected. Results suggest that the contaminants originate in the ore deposit zone fronting Yin mountains in the upper reaches of the Hetao Region.     

An early warning and control system for urban, drinking water quality protection: China’s experience

An event-driven, urban, drinking water quality early warning and control system (DEWS) is proposed to cope with China’s urgent need for protecting its urban drinking water. The DEWS has a web service structure and provides users with water quality monitoring functions, water quality early warning functions, and water quality accident decision-making functions. The DEWS functionality is guided by the principles of control theory and risk assessment as applied to the feedback control of urban water supply systems. The DEWS has been deployed in several large Chinese cities and found to perform well insofar as water quality early warning and emergency decision-making is concerned. This paper describes a DEWS for urban water quality protection that has been developed in China.     

Assessing the effects of tertiary treated wastewater reuse on a Mediterranean river (Llobregat,NE Spain), part III: pathogens and indicators

Purpose  

Need, coupled with advances in water treatment technology, is motivating a growing interest in augmenting drinking water supplies with reclaimed water. Using reclaimed water to increase the flow of the Llobregat River upstream the water catchment site of the complex multi-step drinking water treatment plant of Sant Joan Despí has been considered. The impact of reclaimed water discharges on the load of E. coli, spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia, somatic coliphages, cytopathogenic enteroviruses, and total and infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts in the Llobregat River water was assessed to gain information for funded decisions in potential future emergencies.     

The use of XAD-resins for the detection of mutagenic activity in water: II. Studies with drinking water

The combined XAD-4/8-Ames test procedure for concentrating and detecting trace amounts of organic mutagens, as already described for surface water, is shown to be suitable for drinking water as well. DMSO is as effective as acetone in eluting the adsorbed mutagens, and optimal recovery of overall mutagenic activity is observed at a flow rate of 2–4 bed volumes/min. The drinking water of 6 cities in The Netherlands, which prepare their drinking water from the rivers Rhine and Meuse, has been tested for mutagenic activity. Mutagenic activity could be demonstrated in 4 cities. Dose-related responses are observed with concentrates of as little as 500 ml of drinking water and the 4 cities clearly differ with regard to the type of mutations induced (TA 98 or TA 100) and the effect of metabolic activation. The absence of mutagenic activity in drinking water of 2 cities indicates that by a proper combination of treatment processes the organics which are responsible for the detected mutagenic activity in drinking water can be removed to a high degree.     

The California TEAM study: Breath concentrations and personal exposures to 26 volatile compounds in air and drinking water of 188 residents of Los Angeles,Antioch, and Pittsburg,CA

The U.S. EPA carried out a study of personal exposures to 26 volatile organic chemicals in the air, drinking water, and exhaled breath of 188 California residents in 1984. Sixteen chemicals were often found above quantifiable limits in the personal air samples, but only the four trihalomethanes were often found in drinking water. The highest exposures were to 1,1,1-trichloroethane, para-dichlorobenzene, xylenes, benzene, and tetrachloroethylene. Indoor air concentrations generally exceeded outdoor air concentrations, particularly at the higher percentiles. Breath concentrations of eight chemicals showed significant correlations with preceding personal air concentrations in the two visits to Los Angeles. Smoking, employment, and automobile-related activities were identified as important sources of personal exposure to a number of target compounds.     

TiO2光催化技术处理饮用水微污染及杀灭微生物的研究

光催化处理饮用水微量污染物以及在饮用水消毒和杀菌方面的研究是近年来研究的热点.本文论述了 TiO2光催化处理饮用水中的微量卤代物、腐殖质、微生物代谢产物,以及杀灭细菌、真菌和病毒等微生物的研究进展.探讨了光催化杀灭微生物的作用机制,最后对该研究领域的发展方向提出建议和展望.