Local consumers induce resistance differentially between Spartina populations in the field

Intraspecific variation in the strength of inducible plant defenses plays a central role in the interactions between plants and herbivores. Studies of this variation are typically conducted in the greenhouse or laboratory rather than the field. We simultaneously manipulated densities of local consumers in the field within Maine and South Carolina populations of the smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora. South Carolina, but not Maine, plants induced resistance when grazed by local consumers. South Carolina populations of Littoraria snails and planthoppers colonized control more than previously grazed South Carolina plants, and Littoraria snails consumed more control than previously grazed plants. The inducible feeding deterrents in South Carolina plants appear to be water soluble, but not phenolic based. In contrast, grazed and control plants from Maine populations did not differ in attractiveness or palatability to Maine consumers. Thus, inducible plant responses by South Carolina plants had a strong effect on the South Carolina consumer community, but no analogous effect occurred in Maine. Field experiments are a powerful approach to detecting the strength of inducible plant resistance and its impacts on local consumers, which in this case were shown to vary with location.     

Allocation of nitrogen and carbon in an estuarine salt marsh in Portugal

Above and below-ground biomass and nitrogen and carbon composition ofSpartina maritima, Halimione portulacoides andArthrocnemum perenne, dominating species in plant communities of the lower, middle and higher salt marsh, respectively, were compared in an estuarine salt marsh in Portugal. Plant and soil nitrogen and carbon pools were estimated. For all three species root biomass was significantly higher (70–92% of total biomass) than above-ground biomass. The percentage of root biomass was related to the location of the plants in the marsh: higher values were found in plants growing in the lower salt marsh where the sediment was more unstable and subject to tidal action, which stresses the role of the roots as an anchor. For all three species nitrogen concentrations were highest in leaves, reflecting the photosynthetic role of the tissue. For carbon higher concentrations were found in the stems, with the exception ofS. maritima. In general, lower nitrogen concentrations were found in summer, which can be explained by dilution processes due to plant growth. For both nitrogen and carbon, higher concentrations were found in the soil surface layers. Higher soil nitrogen and carbon levels were associated with higher organic matter contents. Most of the nitrogen in the salt marsh occurred in the sediments (0–40 cm) and only ca. 5.7–13.3% of the total was found in the plants. The greater portion (76.5%–86%) of carbon was found in the sediment.     

Salt-marsh erosion and restoration in relation to flood protection on the Wadden Sea barrier island Terschelling

This paper explores the impact of erosion and restoration measures on habitat development and on wave damping by a small salt marsh nestled alongside a dike on the Wadden island of Terschelling. The aim is to advance knowledge about the benefits and possible side-effects of salt-marsh restoration. Analysis of a time series of aerial photographs from 1944 to 2010 indicates that the salt marsh decreased steadily in size after maintenance of accretion works was terminated. In the western part of the marsh, which is accessible to sheep, vegetation is low (5–15 cm) and dominated by Salicornia europaea and by Spartina anglica. In the most intensively grazed parts, vegetation is very scarce. The eastern, inaccessible part of the salt marsh is covered by dense patches of the shrubby perennial Atriplex portulacoides and Spartina anglica (15–25 cm in height). SWAN wave models show that wave height at this location is significantly affected by the areal extent of the salt marsh as well as by the vegetation. High or dense vegetation are in the models nearly as effective in damping waves (with an initial height of 0.15 and 0.5 m) as widening the salt-marsh area by 350 m. A low density of low plants, as observed in the grazed part of the marsh, has almost no wave-damping effect. Even under conditions of sea level rise, a broader salt marsh vegetated with high plants significantly affects modelled wave height. Therefore, salt-marsh restoration is an adaptation measure worth exploring, though an array of effect types must be considered.     

Tidal regime dictates the cascading consumptive and nonconsumptive effects of multiple predators on a marsh plant

Prey perception of predators can dictate how prey behaviorally balance the need to avoid being eaten with the need to consume resources, and this perception and consequent behavior can be strongly influenced by physical processes. Physical factors, however, can also alter the density and diversity of predators that pursue prey. Thus, it remains uncertain to what extent variable risk perception and antipredator behavior vs. variation in predator consumption of prey underlie prey-resource dynamics and give rise to large-scale patterns in natural systems. In an experimental food web where tidal inundation of marsh controls which predators access prey, crab and conch (predators) influenced the survivorship and antipredator behavior of snails (prey) irrespective of whether tidal inundation occurred on a diurnal or mixed semidiurnal schedule. Specifically, cues of either predator caused snails to ascend marsh leaves; snail survivorship was reduced more by unrestrained crabs than by unrestrained conchs; and snail survivorship was lowest with multiple predators than with any single predator despite interference. In contrast to these tidally consistent direct consumptive and nonconsumptive effects, indirect predator effects differed with tidal regime: snail grazing of marsh leaves in the presence of predators increased in the diurnal tide but decreased in the mixed semidiurnal tidal schedule, overwhelming the differences in snail density that resulted from direct predation. In addition, results suggest that snails may increase their foraging to compensate for stress-induced metabolic demand in the presence of predator cues. Patterns from natural marshes spanning a tidal inundation gradient (from diurnal to mixed semidiurnal tides) across 400 km of coastline were consistent with experimental results: despite minimal spatial variation in densities of predators, snails, abiotic stressors, and marsh productivity, snail grazing on marsh plants increased and plant biomass decreased on shorelines exposed to a diurnal tide. Because both the field and experimental results can be explained by tidal-induced variation in risk perception and snail behavior rather than by changes in snail density, this study reinforces the importance of nonconsumptive predator effects in complex natural systems and at large spatial scales.     

Arthropod food web restoration following removal of an invasive wetland plant.

Restoration of habitats impacted by invasive plants is becoming an increasingly important tool in the management of native biodiversity, though most studies do not go beyond monitoring the abundance of particular taxonomic groups, such as the return of native vegetation. Yet, the reestablishment of trophic interactions among organisms in restored habitats is equally important if we are to monitor and understand how ecosystems recover. This study examined whether food web interactions among arthropods (as inferred by abundance of naturally occurring stable isotopes of C [delta13C] and N [delta15N]) were reestablished in the restoration of a coastal Spartina alterniflora salt marsh that had been invaded by Phragmites australis. From patterns of C and N stable isotopes we infer that trophic interactions among arthropods in the native salt marsh habitats are characterized by reliance on the dominant marsh plant Spartina as a basal resource. Herbivores such as delphacid planthoppers and mirid bugs have isotope signatures characteristic of Spartina, and predatory arthropods such as dolicopodid flies and spiders likewise have delta13C and delta15N signatures typical of Spartina-derived resources (approximately -13 per thousand and 10 per thousand, respectively). Stable isotope patterns also suggest that the invasion of Phragmites into salt marshes and displacement of Spartina significantly alter arthropod food web interactions. Arthropods in Phragmites-dominated sites have delta13C isotope values between -18 per thousand and -20 per thousand, suggesting reliance on detritus and/or benthic microalgae as basal resources and not on Phragmites, which has a delta13C approximately -26 per thousand. Since most Phragmites herbivores are either feeding internally or are rare transients from nearby Spartina, these resources do not provide significant prey resources for other arthropod consumers. Rather, predator isotope signatures in the invaded habitats indicate dependence on detritus/algae as basal resources instead of the dominant vegetation. The reestablishment of Spartina after removal of Phragmites, however, not only returned species assemblages typical of reference (uninvaded) Spartina, but stable isotope signatures suggest that the trophic interactions among the arthropods were also similar in reestablished habitats. Specifically, both herbivores and predators showed characteristic Spartina signatures, suggesting the return of the original grazer-based food web structure in the restored habitats.     

Marsh macrophyte responses to inundation anticipate impacts of sea-level rise and indicate ongoing drowning of North Carolina marshes

In situ persistence of coastal marsh habitat as sea level rises depends on whether macrophytes induce compensatory accretion of the marsh surface. Experimental planters in two North Carolina marshes served to expose two dominant macrophyte species to six different elevations spanning 0.75 m (inundation durations 0.4–99 %). Spartina alterniflora and Juncus roemerianus exhibited similar responses—with production in planters suggesting initial increases and then demonstrating subsequent steep declines with increasing inundation, conforming to a segment of the ecophysiological parabola. Projecting inundation levels experienced by macrophytes in the planters onto adjacent marsh platforms revealed that neither species occupied elevations associated with increasing production. Declining macrophyte production with rising seas reduces both bioaccumulation of roots below-ground and baffle-induced sedimentation above-ground. By occupying only descending portions of the parabola, macrophytes in central North Carolina marshes are responding to rising water levels by progressive declines in production, ultimately leading to marsh drowning.     

Growth of the salt marsh periwinkleLittoraria irrorata on fungal and cordgrass diets

The growth of the salt marsh periwinkleLittoraria irrorata (collected from Sapelo Island, Georgia in 1991, initial shell length 6.2 to 11.5 mm) on various diets was measured. Growth was highest on a diet of standing-dead leaves ofSpartina alterniflora. Periwinkles provided with marsh sediment, yellow-green, sterile, or bacteria-colonized leaves lost organic mass. Fungal-colonized leaves and pure mycelia of fungi common on standing-dead leaves allowed intermediate growth. Growth onS. alterniflora-based diets was negatively correlated with the phenolics content of the food, and positively correlated with its lipid content. No correlation was found between growth and protein content. The digestibility ofS. alterniflora leaves, estimated with the acid-insoluble ash technique, was highest when yellow-green leaves were used. Colonization by fungi or bacteria caused it to decline. ForS. alterniflora-based diets, growth rates were positively correlated with the amount of time spent on the food.     

Community-wide ramifications of an associational refuge on shallow rocky reefs

Little attention has been given to associational refuges in ecology, despite their potential for maintaining species diversity and supporting higher trophic levels. Here I show how the colonial anemone, Corynactis californica, creates a refuge for benthic macroalgae and invertebrate fish prey on intensively grazed shallow rocky reefs in the Santa Barbara Channel off southern California, U.S.A. On reefs heavily grazed by sea urchins, benthic macroalgae and invertebrate fish prey were relatively more abundant among Corynactis colonies than adjacent areas lacking the anemone. Results from field experiments showed that Corynactis facilitated the recruitment of macroalgae and tubicolous amphipods in "urchin-barren" areas subjected to intensive grazing. In areas forested by giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), where grazing intensity from urchins was low, Corynactis suppressed algal recruitment but facilitated tubicolous amphipods. A manipulation of fish and sea urchins suggested that grazing by urchins, as opposed to predation from fish (primarily surfperch Embiotocidae), suppressed tubicolous amphipods, and this activity was hindered by the presence of Corynactis. In systems where human activity has intensified herbivory, associational refuges may maintain species diversity and support higher trophic levels.     

Leaf quality, predators, and stochastic processes in the assembly of a diverse herbivore community

Ecological communities are structured by both deterministic, niche-based processes and stochastic processes such as dispersal. A pressing issue in ecology is to determine when and for which organisms each of these types of processes is important in community assembly. The roles of deterministic and stochastic processes have been studied for a variety of communities, but very few researchers have addressed their contribution to insect herbivore community structure. Insect herbivore niches are often described as largely shaped by the antagonistic pressures of predation and host plant defenses. However host plants are frequently discrete patches of habitat, and their spatial arrangement can affect herbivore dispersal patterns. We studied the roles of predation, host plant quality, and host spatial proximity for the assembly of a diverse insect herbivore community on Quercus alba (white oak) across two growing seasons. We examined abundances of feeding guilds to determine if ecologically similar species responded similarly to variation in niches. Most guilds responded similarly to leaf quality, preferring high-nitrogen, low-tannin host plants, particularly late in the growing season, while bird predation had little impact on herbivore abundance. The communities on the high-quality plants tended to be larger and, in some cases, have greater species richness. We analyzed community composition by correlating indices of community similarity with predator presence, leaf quality similarity, and host plant proximity. Birds did not affect community composition. Community similarity was significantly associated with distance between host plants and uncorrelated with leaf quality similarity. Thus although leaf quality significantly affected the total abundance of herbivores on a host plant, in some cases leading to increased species richness, dispersal limitation may weaken this relationship. The species composition of these communities may be driven by stochastic processes rather than variation in host plant characteristics or differential predation by insectivorous birds.     

Differences in relative abundance and size structure of the sea stars Pisaster ochraceus and Evasterias troschelii among habitat types in Puget Sound, Washington, USA

We surveyed patterns in the relative abundance and size structure of the sea stars Pisaster ochraceus and Evasterias troschelii in five habitat types of varying structural complexity and prey availability (sand/cobble, boulder, and rocky intertidal; pilings; and floating docks) in Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands, Washington. For both species, small sea stars were most abundant in the most structurally complex habitat type (boulder), where they occurred almost exclusively under boulders during low tide. Larger individuals became more abundant as structural complexity decreased, occurring more frequently in open habitat types (rocky shores, pilings, and docks) known to have greater abundances of prey resources. Gull foraging observations and experiments demonstrated that exposed small sea stars of both species were highly vulnerable to predation, suggesting that small sea stars require structural complexity (crevice microhabitat) as a predation refuge. Large sea stars, once attaining a size refuge from predation, appear to migrate to more exposed habitat types with more abundant food resources. These results suggest parallel ontogenetic habitat shifts in two co-occurring consumer species related to a shared predation risk at early life stages and demonstrate how the relative importance of top-down and bottom-up processes may differ with ontogeny.     

Birds as predators in tropical agroforestry systems

Insectivorous birds reduce arthropod abundances and their damage to plants in some, but not all, studies where predation by birds has been assessed. The variation in bird effects may be due to characteristics such as plant productivity or quality, habitat complexity, and/or species diversity of predator and prey assemblages. Since agroforestry systems vary in such characteristics, these systems provide a good starting point for understanding when and where we can expect predation by birds to be important. We analyze data from bird exclosure studies in forests and agroforestry systems to ask whether birds consistently reduce their arthropod prey base and whether bird predation differs between forests and agroforestry systems. Further, we focus on agroforestry systems to ask whether the magnitude of bird predation (1) differs between canopy trees and understory plants, (2) differs when migratory birds are present or absent, and (3) correlates with bird abundance and diversity. We found that, across all studies, birds reduce all arthropods, herbivores, carnivores, and plant damage. We observed no difference in the magnitude of bird effects between agroforestry systems and forests despite simplified habitat structure and plant diversity in agroforests. Within agroforestry systems, bird reduction of arthropods was greater in the canopy than the crop layer. Top-down effects of bird predation were especially strong during censuses when migratory birds were present in agroforestry systems. Importantly, the diversity of the predator assemblage correlated with the magnitude of predator effects; where the diversity of birds, especially migratory birds, was greater, birds reduced arthropod densities to a greater extent. We outline potential mechanisms for relationships between bird predator, insect prey, and habitat characteristics, and we suggest future studies using tropical agroforests as a model system to further test these areas of ecological theory.     

Nitrogen accumulation and plant species replacement in three salt marsh systems in the Wadden Sea

Salt marsh development on the coastal barrier island of Schiermonnikoog (The Netherlands) was compared with two other salt marsh systems in the Wadden Sea. Accretion rate, nitrogen accumulation and changes in plant species composition were investigated using chronosequences. The age of the marsh was estimated from aerial photographs and old maps. In 7230 plots, the elevation of the marsh surface, the thickness of the sediment layer (clay) and the presence of plant species was recorded. In addition, the nitrogen pool was measured at each successional stage. Accretion rates were similar in the three salt marshes. Higher accretion rates were found at younger marshes. A strong linear relationship between nitrogen pool size and thickness of the clay layer was found for the three marshes. The accumulation rate of nitrogen is therefore strongly related to the accretion rate. Thus, more nitrogen is present in the sediment of later successional stages where more clay has accumulated. On the high salt marsh (55 cm+MHT),Ameria maritima disappeared andArtemisia maritima, Juncus gerardi andElymus athericus established at sites with a thicker clay layer. On the low salt marsh (25 cm+MHT),Plantago maritima, Puccinellia maritima andLimonium vulgare disappeared andAtriplex (Halimione) portulacoides established. Apparently, with the accumulation of clay and therefore of nitrogen, tall growing species take over in salt marshes not grazed by livestock.     

Crab herbivory regulates plant facilitative and competitive processes in Argentinean marshes

Interactions among plants have been hypothesized to be context dependent, shifting between facilitative and competitive in response to variation in physical and biological stresses. This hypothesis has been supported by studies of the importance of positive and negative interactions along abiotic stress gradients (e.g., salinity, desiccation), but few studies have tested how variation in biotic stresses can mediate the nature and strength of plant interactions. We examined the hypothesis that herbivory regulates the strength of competitive and facilitative interactions during succession in Argentinean marshes dominated by Spartina densiflora and Sarcocornia perennis. Spartina densiflora is preferred by the dominant herbivore in the system, the crab Chasmagnathus granulatus. We experimentally manipulated crab herbivory, plant structure, and shade, and we found that, when herbivory was low in the spring and summer, competitive interactions between plants were dominant, but in the fall, when herbivory was highest, facilitative interactions dominated, and Spartina densiflora survival was completely dependent upon association with Sarcocornia perennis. Moreover, experimental removal of Sarcocornia perennis across recently disturbed tidal flats revealed that, while Sarcocornia perennis positively affected small Spartina densiflora patches by decreasing herbivory, as patch size increases and they can withstand the impact of herbivory, competitive interactions predominated and Spartina densiflora ultimately outcompeted Sarcocornia perennis. These results show that herbivory can mediate the balance between facilitative and competitive processes in vascular plant communities and that the strength of consumer regulation of interactions can vary seasonally and with patch size.     

Effects of Invasive Cordgrass on Presence of Marsh Grassbird in an Area where It Is Not Native

The threatened Marsh Grassbird (Locustella pryeri) first appeared in the salt marsh in east China after the salt marsh was invaded by cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), a non‐native invasive species. To understand the dependence of non‐native Marsh Grassbird on the non‐native cordgrass, we quantified habitat use, food source, and reproductive success of the Marsh Grassbird at the Chongming Dongtan (CMDT) salt marsh. In the breeding season, we used point counts and radio‐tracking to determine habitat use by Marsh Grassbirds. We analyzed basal food sources of the Marsh Grassbirds by comparing the δ¹³C isotope signatures of feather and fecal samples of birds with those of local plants. We monitored the nests through the breeding season and determined the breeding success of the Marsh Grassbirds at CMDT. Density of Marsh Grassbirds was higher where cordgrass occurred than in areas of native reed (Phragmites australis) monoculture. The breeding territory of the Marsh Grassbird was composed mainly of cordgrass stands, and nests were built exclusively against cordgrass stems. Cordgrass was the major primary producer at the base of the Marsh Grassbird food chain. Breeding success of the Marsh Grassbird at CMDT was similar to breeding success within its native range. Our results suggest non‐native cordgrass provides essential habitat and food for breeding Marsh Grassbirds at CMDT and that the increase in Marsh Grassbird abundance may reflect the rapid spread of cordgrass in the coastal regions of east China. Our study provides an example of how a primary invader (i.e., cordgrass) can alter an ecosystem and thus facilitate colonization by a second non‐native species. Efectos de Spartina alterniflora Invasora Sobre Locustella pryeri en un Área Donde No Es Nativa     

Regulation of benthic algal and animal communities by salt marsh plants: impact of shading

Plant cover is a fundamental feature of many coastal marine and terrestrial systems and controls the structure of associated animal communities. Both natural and human-mediated changes in plant cover influence abiotic sediment properties and thus have cascading impacts on the biotic community. Using clipping (structural) and light (shading) manipulations in two salt marsh vegetation zones (one dominated by Spartina foliosa and one by Salicornia virginica), we tested whether these plant species exert influence on abiotic environmental factors and examined the mechanisms by which these changes regulate the biotic community. In an unshaded (plant and shade removal) treatment, marsh soils exhibited harsher physical properties, a microalgal community composition shift toward increased diatom dominance, and altered macrofaunal community composition with lower species richness, a larger proportion of insect larvae, and a smaller proportion of annelids, crustaceans, and oligochaetes compared to shaded (plant removal, shade mimic) and control treatment plots. Overall, the shaded treatment plots were similar to the controls. Plant cover removal also resulted in parallel shifts in microalgal and macrofaunal isotopic signatures of the most dynamic species. This suggests that animal responses are seen mainly among microalgae grazers and may be mediated by plant modification of microalgae. Results of these experiments demonstrate how light reduction by the vascular plant canopy can control salt marsh sediment communities in an arid climate. This research facilitates understanding of sequential consequences of changing salt marsh plant cover associated with climate or sea level change, habitat degradation, marsh restoration, or plant invasion.     

The growth-predation risk trade-off under a growing gape-limited predation threat

Growth is a critical ecological trait because it can determine population demography, evolution, and community interactions. Predation risk frequently induces decreased foraging and slow growth in prey. However, such strategies may not always be favored when prey can outgrow a predator's hunting ability. At the same time, a growing gape-limited predator broadens its hunting ability through time by expanding its gape and thereby creates a moving size refuge for susceptible prey. Here, I explore the ramifications of growing gape-limited predators for adaptive prey growth. A discrete demographic model for optimal foraging/growth strategies was derived under the realistic scenario of gape-limited and gape-unconstrained predation threats. Analytic and numerical results demonstrate a novel fitness minimum just above the growth rate of the gape-limited predator. This local fitness minimum separates a slow growth strategy that forages infrequently and accumulates low but constant predation risk from a fast growth strategy that forages frequently and experiences a high early predation risk in return for lower future predation risk and enhanced fecundity. Slow strategies generally were advantageous in communities dominated by gape-unconstrained predators whereas fast strategies were advantageous in gape-limited predator communities. Results were sensitive to the assumed relationships between prey size and fecundity and between prey growth and predation risk. Predator growth increased the parameter space favoring fast prey strategies. The model makes the testable predictions that prey should not grow at the same rate as their gape-limited predator and generally should grow faster than the fastest growing gape-limited predator. By focusing on predator constraints on prey capture, these results integrate the ecological and evolutionary implications of prey growth in diverse predator communities and offer an explanation for empirical growth patterns previously viewed to be anomalies.     

Effect of predation threat on repeatability of individual crab behavior revealed by mark-recapture

The persistence of behavioral types in situ and the drivers of persistence are central to predicting the ecological effects of intraspecific behavioral variation. We surveyed individual refuge use of mud crabs (Panopeus herbstii), a behavior related to the strength of a trait-mediated trophic cascade in oyster reefs, in the absence and presence of toadfish (Opsanus tau) predation threat. We then released these crabs into the field and using mark-recapture, measured the repeatability of this behavior in the absence and presence of threat, and how behavioral change was affected by time in the field (a month on average, up to 81 days), crab size, and sex. Because crabs exhibited some evidence of a circatidal rhythm in refuge use, we also tested how tidal height during observation influenced behavioral change. Predation threat increased refuge use, and small crabs used the refuge more than large crabs, particularly under threat. In recaptured crabs, refuge use was more repeatable under threat. Neither time in the field, crab size, crab sex, nor tidal height had any effect on behavioral change. Our results support the non-mutually exclusive hypotheses that (1) prey organisms in the presence, rather than absence, of predation threat should exhibit less behavioral variability because the fear of dying (a severe fitness consequence) should take precedence over less immediately important influences on behavior (e.g., hunger) and that (2) individual behaviors tied to fixed traits (e.g., the body size dependence of refuge use under threat in this study), rather than variable traits, should be more repeatable over time.     

Effects of exotic Spartina alterniflora on rhizosphere and endophytic bacterial community structures and diversity in roots of native mangroves北大核心CSCD

Root-associated microbial communities are very important for biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur in wetland ecosystems, and help to enhance the mechanisms of plant invasions. In the estuary of Jiulong River (China), Spartina alternifiora has widely invaded Kandelia obovata-dominated habitats, making it necessary to investigate the influence of rootassociated bacteria. The endophytic and rhizosphere bacterial community structures associated with selected plant species were investigated using the barcoded Illumina paired-end sequencing technique. The diversity indices of bacteria associated with the roots of S. alterniflora were higher than those of the transition stands and K. obovata monoculture. Using principal coordinate analysis with UniFrac metrics, the comparison of diversity showed that all samples could be significantly clustered into three major groups, according to the bacterial communities of origin. Four phyla, namely, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, and Firmicutes, were abundant in the rhizoplane of the two salt marsh plants, whereas Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria were the more abundant endophytic bacteria. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, and Firmicutes in the rhizosphere bacteria of S. alterniflora accounted for 78.0%, 5.6%, 3.3%, and 1.6%, respectively. Members of the phyla Spirochaetes and Chloroflexi were found among the endophytic bacteria of S. alterniflora and K. obovata, respectively. Using linear discriminate analysis, we found some dominant rhizoplane and endophytic bacteria, including Pseudoalteromonadaceae, Vibrionaceae, Methylophilaceae, and Desulfovibrio, which could potentially affect the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles. Of interest was that endophytic bacteria were more sensitive to plant invasion than rhizosphere bacteria. Thus, the results provide evidence for the isolation of functional bacteria and the effects of root-associated microbial groups on S. alterniflora invasions. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

Are soil mite assemblages structured by the identity of native and invasive alien grasses?

Associations between plants and animals in aboveground communities are often predictable and specific. This has been exploited for the purposes of estimating the diversity of animal species based on the diversity of plant species. The introduction of invasive alien plants into an ecosystem can result in dramatic changes in both the native plant and animal assemblages. Few data exist at the species level to determine whether belowground animal assemblages share the same degree of association to plants. The hypotheses that soil mites (Acari) form assemblages specifically associated with different native grass species in an unmanipulated natural ecosystem and that invasive alien grasses will impact soil mite assemblage composition in this setting were tested. Soil mites sampled beneath five native and two invasive alien species of grasses at the Konza Prairie Biological Station, Kansas, USA, were similarly abundant, species rich, diverse, and taxonomically distinct. No mite species had affinities for a specific grass species. There was no evidence from analysis of similarity, canonical correspondence analysis, or a nonparametric assemblage analysis that the assemblage composition of soil mites was specific to grass species. Results suggest that soil mite assemblages were more related to characteristics of the plant assemblage as a whole or prevailing soil conditions. The most recent invasive alien grass did not support a successionally younger mite fauna, based on the ratio of mesostigmatid to oribatid mites, and neither of the two invasive grasses influenced mite assemblage structure, possibly because they had not yet substantially altered the soil environment. Our results suggest that extrapolations of soil mite diversity based on assumptions of plant specificity would be invalid.     

Habitat as a mediator of mesopredator‐driven mammal extinction

A prevailing view in dryland systems is that mammals are constrained by the scarcity of fertile soils and primary productivity. An alternative view is that predation is a primary driver of mammal assemblages, especially in Australia, where 2 introduced mesopredators—feral cat (Felis catus) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes)—are responsible for severe declines of dryland mammals. We evaluated productivity and predation as drivers of native mammal assemblage structure in dryland Australia. We used new data from 90 sites to examine the divers of extant mammal species richness and reconstructed historic mammal assemblages to determine proportional loss of mammal species across broad habitat types (landform and vegetation communities). Predation was supported as a major driver of extant mammal richness, but its effect was strongly mediated by habitat. Areas that were rugged or had dense grass cover supported more mammal species than the more productive and topographically simple areas. Twelve species in the critical weight range (CWR) (35–5500 g) that is most vulnerable to mesopredator predation were extirpated from the continent's central region, and the severity of loss of species correlated negatively with ruggedness and positively with productivity. Based on previous studies, we expect that habitat mediates predation from red foxes and feral cats because it affects these species’ densities and foraging efficiency. Large areas of rugged terrain provided vital refuge for Australian dryland mammals, and we predict such areas will support the persistence of CWR species in the face of ongoing mammal declines elsewhere in Australia.