Nitrogen excretion and ammonia emissions from pigs fed modified diets

Two swine feeding trials were conducted (initial body weight = 47 +/- 2 and 41 +/- 3 kg for Trials 1 and 2, respectively) to evaluate reduced crude protein (CP) and yucca (Yucca schidigera Roezl ex Ortgies) extract-supplemented diets on NH3 emissions. In Trial 1, nine pigs were offered a corn-soybean meal diet (C, 174 g kg(-1) CP), a Lys-supplemented diet (L, 170 g kg(-1) CP), or a 145 g kg(-1) CP diet supplemented with Lys, Met, Thr, and Trp (LMTT). In Trial 2, nine pigs were fed diet L supplemented with 0, 62.5, or 125 mg of yucca extract per kg diet. Each feeding period consisted of a 4-d dietary adjustment followed by 72 h of continuous NH3 measurement. Urine and fecal samples were collected each period. Feeding the LMTT diet reduced (P < 0.05) average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (G:F) compared to diet L. Fecal N concentration decreased with a reduction in dietary CP, but urinary ammonium increased from pigs fed diet LMTT (2.0 g kg(-1), wet basis) compared to those fed diet C (1.1 g kg(-1)) or L (1.0 g kg(-1)). When pigs were fed reduced CP diets NH3 emission rates decreased (2.46, 2.16, and 1.05 mg min(-1) for diets C, L, and LMTT). Yucca had no effect on feed intake, ADG, or G:F. Ammonium and N concentrations of manure and NH3 emission rates did not differ with yucca content. Caution must be executed to maintain animal performance when strategies are implemented to reduce NH3 emissions.     

Alcohol, volatile fatty acid, phenol, and methane emissions from dairy cows and fresh manure

There are approximately 2.5 million dairy cows in California. Emission inventories list dairy cows and their manure as the major source of regional air pollutants, but data on their actual emissions remain sparse, particularly for smog-forming volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and greenhouse gases (GHGs). We report measurements of alcohols, volatile fatty acids, phenols, and methane (CH4) emitted from nonlactating (dry) and lactating dairy cows and their manure under controlled conditions. The experiment was conducted in an environmental chamber that simulates commercial concrete-floored freestall cow housing conditions. The fluxes of methanol, ethanol, and CH4 were measured from cows and/or their fresh manure. The average estimated methanol and ethanol emissions were 0.33 and 0.51 g cow(-1) h(-1) from dry cows and manure and 0.7 and 1.27 g cow(-1) h(-1) from lactating cows and manure, respectively. Both alcohols increased over time, coinciding with increasing accumulation of manure on the chamber floor. Volatile fatty acids and phenols were emitted at concentrations close to their detection limit. Average estimated CH4 emissions were predominantly associated with enteric fermentation from cows rather than manure and were 12.35 and 18.23 g cow(-1) h(-1) for dry and lactating cows, respectively. Lactating cows produced considerably more gaseous VOCs and GHGs emissions than dry cows (P < 0.001). Dairy cows and fresh manure have the potential to emit considerable amounts of alcohols and CH4 and research is needed to determine effective mitigation.     

Ammonia emissions from swine houses in the southeastern United States

Ammonia (NH3) from confined animal feeding operations is emitted from several sources including lagoons, field applications, and houses. This paper presents studies that were conducted to evaluate NH3 emissions from swine finisher and sow animal houses in the southeastern USA. Management and climate variables including animal weight, feed consumption, housing gutter water temperature, total time fans operated per day, house air temperature, house ambient NH3 concentration, and animal numbers were measured to determine their individual and combined effect on NH3 emissions. Ammonia emissions varied on daily and seasonal bases with higher emissions during warmer periods. For finishers, the summertime housing emissions on a per-animal basis were 2.4 times higher than wintertime (7.0 vs. 3.3 g NH3 animal(-1) d(-1)) or 3.2 times higher when compared on an animal unit (AU) basis (1 AU = 500 kg) because of climate and animal size differences between measurement periods. For summertime, the emission factor for the finishing pigs was 7.8 times higher than for sows on an animal basis and 25.6 times higher on an AU basis. Simple models were developed for housing emissions based on (i) all measured factors that were independent of each other and (ii) on three commonly measured management factors. The two models explained 97 and 64%, respectively, of variations in emissions. Ammonia emissions were found to be somewhat less than other studies on the same type housing due to more representative housing concentration measurements and calibration of exhaust fans; thus, emission factors for these type houses will be less than previously thought.     

DAYCENT national-scale simulations of nitrous oxide emissions from cropped soils in the United States

Until recently, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission factor methodology, based on simple empirical relationships, has been used to estimate carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) fluxes for regional and national inventories. However, the 2005 USEPA greenhouse gas inventory includes estimates of N2O emissions from cultivated soils derived from simulations using DAYCENT, a process-based biogeochemical model. DAYCENT simulated major U.S. crops at county-level resolution and IPCC emission factor methodology was used to estimate emissions for the approximately 14% of cropped land not simulated by DAYCENT. The methodology used to combine DAYCENT simulations and IPCC methodology to estimate direct and indirect N2O emissions is described in detail. Nitrous oxide emissions from simulations of presettlement native vegetation were subtracted from cropped soil N2O to isolate anthropogenic emissions. Meteorological data required to drive DAYCENT were acquired from DAYMET, an algorithm that uses weather station data and accounts for topography to predict daily temperature and precipitation at 1-km2 resolution. Soils data were acquired from the State Soil Geographic Database (STATSGO). Weather data and dominant soil texture class that lie closest to the geographical center of the largest cluster of cropped land in each county were used to drive DAYCENT. Land management information was implemented at the agricultural-economic region level, as defined by the Agricultural Sector Model. Maps of model-simulated county-level crop yields were compared with yields estimated by the USDA for quality control. Combining results from DAYCENT simulations of major crops and IPCC methodology for remaining cropland yielded estimates of approximately 109 and approximately 70 Tg CO2 equivalents for direct and indirect, respectively, mean annual anthropogenic N2O emissions for 1990-2003.     

Effects of sodium bisulfate on alcohol, amine, and ammonia emissions from dairy slurry

Sodium bisulfate (SBS) is extensively used in the poultry industry to reduce ammonia and bacterial levels in litter. It is also used in the dairy industry to reduce bacterial counts in bedding and ammonia emissions, preventing environmental mastitis and calf respiratory stress. The present study measured the effect of SBS on the air emission of ammonia, amine, and alcohol from a dairy slurry mix. Amine flux was undetectable (<5 ng L(-1)) across treatments. Application of SBS decreased ammonia, methanol, and ethanol emissions from fresh dairy slurry. Ammonia emissions decreased with increasing levels of SBS treatment. The 3-d average ammonia flux from the control (no SBS applied) and the three different SBS surface application levels of 0.125, 0.250, and 0.375 kg m(-2) were 513.4, 407.2, 294.8, and 204.5 mg h(-1) m(-2), respectively. The ammonia emission reduction potentials were 0, 21, 43, and 60%, respectively. Methanol and ethanol emissions decreased with an increase in the amount of SBS applied. The 3-d average methanol emissions were 223.7, 178.0, 131.6, and 87.0 mg h(-1) m(-2) for SBS surface application level of 0, 0.125, 0.250, and 0.375 kg m(-2), with corresponding reduction potentials of 0, 20, 41, and 61, respectively. Similar emission reduction potentials of 0, 18, 35, and 58% were obtained for ethanol. Sodium bisulfate was shown to be effective in the mitigation of ammonia and alcohol emissions from fresh dairy slurry.     

Perceptions of a Nearby Exurban Protected Area in South Carolina,United States

To address the dearth of literature on the relations between local residents in urban areas and nearby higher-order exurban protected areas, this study examined the perceptions of Columbia (South Carolina) residents toward Congaree National Park. Mail-out survey results from a random sample of 455 adult residents showed positive overall attitudes toward the park, although this did not extend to a desire to personally volunteer in park activities. Cluster analysis on the basis of seven perceptual statements produced three groups: “very enthusiastic park supporters” (VEPS), accounting for one fourth of the sample; “less enthusiastic park supporters” (LEPS), accounting for approximately one half of the sample; and “ambivalents” (AMBS), accounting for the rest. The AMBS tend to be younger than members of the other clusters and have higher income, but enthusiasm was more clearly related to high levels of interaction and awareness relative to the park. Managerial implications of the study are considered, including the need to encourage higher levels of park awareness and visitation, as well as more ecologically responsible behavior, among residents of the greater Columbia urban area.     

Developing a spatial framework of common ecological regions for the conterminous United States

In 1996, nine federal agencies with mandates to inventory and manage the nation's land, water, and biological resources signed a memorandum of understanding entitled “Developing a Spatial Framework of Ecological Units of The United States.” This spatial framework is the basis for interagency coordination and collaboration in the development of ecosystem management strategies. One of the objectives in this memorandum is the development of a map of common ecological regions for the conterminous United States. The regions defined in the spatial framework will be areas within which biotic, abiotic, terrestrial, and aquatic capacities and potentials are similar. The agencies agreed to begin by exploring areas of agreement and disagreement in three federal natural-resource spatial frameworks—Major Land Resource Areas of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Hierarchy of Ecological Units of the USDA Forest Service, and Level III Ecoregions of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The explicit intention is that the framework will foster an ecological understanding of the landscape, rather than an understanding based on a single resource, single discipline, or single agency perspective. This paper describes the origin, capabilities, and limitations of three major federal agency frameworks and suggests why a common ecological framework is desirable. The scientific and programmatic benefits of common ecological regions are described, and a proposed process for development of the common framework is presented.     

A comparative evaluation of the major pollution control programs in the United States and West Germany

In order to provide a more adequate means for the preservation and the enhancement of the environment, the United States and West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany) have either created new institutions or altered existing agencies for the implementation of public policy. Along with these developments, a series of programs have been specifically designed to foster and maintain a quality environment. In this article, we examine the particular strategies employed in the implementation of environmental pollution control laws through the new or altered administrative arrangements in the two countries. The basic tools employed to implement environmental management strategies can be grouped as follows: traditional regulatory procedures, economic incentive concepts, information and volunteerism concepts, and government induced technological changes (USEPA 1976a). The following are examples of these techniques:

1. Traditional regulatory procedures
   1. laws
   2. ordinances
   3. permits
   4. zoning
2. Economic incentive concepts
   1. fines
   2. emission and effluent charges
   3. differential property rates
   4. subsidies
3. Information and volunteerism concepts
   1. labeling programs
   2. increased dissemination through mass media
4. Government-induced technological changes
   1. container controls
   2. subsidized recycling programs
   3. subsidized mass transportation systems

The specific applicability of any of these techniques varies with the particular type and degree of pollution control necessary. In some instances, a combination of these techniques may be appropriate. The degree of public acceptability and cost-effectiveness of the various techniques may vary as a result of regional differences. Furthermore, the success of all of these techniques is dependent upon a high degree of voluntary compliance. Through the examination of the various policy implementation strategies we should be able to appreciate the interrelationships between the different levels of government in pollution control efforts in the United States and West Germany.     

美国油气田钻井固体废物和含油污泥处理处置方式的借鉴意义

本文对美国油气田钻井固体废物和含油污泥废物的属性判断、处理处置方式、钻井固体废物和含油污泥的去向进行介绍,体现了美国对钻井固体废物和含油污泥处理处置的灵活多样性,这对我国钻井固体废物和含油污泥的处理处置管理具有借鉴意义.     

Streamflow Changes in the South Atlantic,United States During the Mid‐ and Late 20th Century1

Abstract: Repeated severe droughts over the last decade in the South Atlantic have raised concern that streamflow may be systematically decreasing, possibly due to climate variability. We examined the monthly and annual trends of streamflow, precipitation, and temperature in the South Atlantic for the time periods: 1934‐2005, 1934‐1969, and 1970‐2005. Streamflow and climate (temperature and precipitation) trends transitioned ca. 1970. From 1934 to 1969, streamflow and precipitation increased in southern regions and decreased in northern regions; temperature decreased throughout the South Atlantic. From 1970 to 2005, streamflow decreased, precipitation decreased, and temperature increased throughout the South Atlantic. It is unclear whether these will be continuing trends or simply part of a long‐term climatic oscillation. Whether these streamflow trends have been driven by climatic or anthropogenic changes, water resources management faces challenging prospects to adapt to decadal‐scale persistently wet and dry hydrologic conditions.     

Delineation and evaluation of hydrologic-landscape regions in the United States using geographic information system tools and multivariate statistical analyses

Hydrologic-landscape regions in the United States were delineated by using geographic information system (GIS) tools combined with principal components and cluster analyses. The GIS and statistical analyses were applied to land-surface form, geologic texture (permeability of the soil and bedrock), and climate variables that describe the physical and climatic setting of 43,931 small (approximately 200 km2) watersheds in the United States. (The term "watersheds" is defined in this paper as the drainage areas of tributary streams, headwater streams, and stream segments lying between two confluences.) The analyses grouped the watersheds into 20 noncontiguous regions based on similarities in land-surface form, geologic texture, and climate characteristics. The percentage of explained variance (R-squared value) in an analysis of variance was used to compare the hydrologic-landscape regions to 19 square geometric regions and the 21 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency level-II ecoregions. Hydrologic-landscape regions generally were better than ecoregions at delineating regions of distinct land-surface form and geologic texture. Hydrologic-landscape regions and ecoregions were equally effective at defining regions in terms of climate, land cover, and water-quality characteristics. For about half of the landscape, climate, and water-quality characteristics, the R-squared values of square geometric regions were as high as hydrologic-landscape regions or ecoregions.     

Problems and Prospects in Local Environmental Assessment: Lessons from the United States

Local environmental assessment (EA), mandated by five US states, has introduced complex management issues for practitioners and policy makers. Based on a review of statutes, case law, and prior EA evaluations,this paper outlines three key issue areas for local EA: linking comprehensive planning and EA; making the threshold determination process more certain; and balancing mitigation with public participation. The paper argues that all the issues reflect a central tension in environmentalassessment between procedural consistency and the need for contingent responses to conditions that differ among the projects to be reviewed.     

Impediments and Solutions to Sustainable,Watershed-Scale Urban Stormwater Management: Lessons from Australia and the United States

In urban and suburban areas, stormwater runoff is a primary stressor on surface waters. Conventional urban stormwater drainage systems often route runoff directly to streams and rivers, thus exacerbating pollutant inputs and hydrologic disturbance, and resulting in the degradation of ecosystem structure and function. Decentralized stormwater management tools, such as low impact development (LID) or water sensitive urban design (WSUD), may offer a more sustainable solution to stormwater management if implemented at a watershed scale. These tools are designed to pond, infiltrate, and harvest water at the source, encouraging evaporation, evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge, and re-use of stormwater. While there are numerous demonstrations of WSUD practices, there are few examples of widespread implementation at a watershed scale with the explicit objective of protecting or restoring a receiving stream. This article identifies seven major impediments to sustainable urban stormwater management: (1) uncertainties in performance and cost, (2) insufficient engineering standards and guidelines, (3) fragmented responsibilities, (4) lack of institutional capacity, (5) lack of legislative mandate, (6) lack of funding and effective market incentives, and (7) resistance to change. By comparing experiences from Australia and the United States, two developed countries with existing conventional stormwater infrastructure and escalating stream ecosystem degradation, we highlight challenges facing sustainable urban stormwater management and offer several examples of successful, regional WSUD implementation. We conclude by identifying solutions to each of the seven impediments that, when employed separately or in combination, should encourage widespread implementation of WSUD with watershed-based goals to protect human health and safety, and stream ecosystems.     

The impact of electric passenger transport technology under an economy-wide climate policy in the United States: Carbon dioxide emissions,coal use,and carbon dioxide capture and storage

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) have the potential to be an economic means of reducing direct (or tailpipe) carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from the transportation sector. However, without a climate policy that places a limit on CO₂ emissions from the electric generation sector, the net impact of widespread deployment of PHEVs on overall U.S. CO₂ emissions is not as clear. A comprehensive analysis must consider jointly the transportation and electricity sectors, along with feedbacks to the rest of the energy system. In this paper, we use the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's MiniCAM model to perform an integrated economic analysis of the penetration of PHEVs and the resulting impact on total U.S. CO₂ emissions. In MiniCAM, the deployment of PHEVs (or any technology) is determined based on its relative economics compared to all other methods of providing fuels and energy carriers to serve passenger transportation demands. Under the assumptions used in this analysis where PHEVs obtain 50–60% of the market for passenger automobiles and light-duty trucks, the ability to deploy PHEVs under the two climate policies modelled here results in over 400 million tons (MT) CO₂ per year of additional cost-effective emissions reductions from the U.S. economy by 2050. In addition to investments in nuclear and renewables, one of the key technology options for mitigating emissions in the electric sector is CO₂ capture and storage (CCS). The additional demand for geologic CO₂ storage created by the introduction of the PHEVs is relatively modest: approximately equal to the cumulative geologic CO₂ storage demanded by two to three large 1000 megawatt (MW) coal-fired power plants using CCS over a 50-year period. The introduction of PHEVs into the U.S. transportation sector, coupled with climate policies such as those examined here, could also reduce U.S. demand for oil by 20–30% by 2050 compared to today's levels.     

Nutrient Loadings to Streams of the Continental United States from Municipal and Industrial Effluent1

Maupin, Molly A. and Tamara Ivahnenko, 2011. Nutrient Loadings to Streams of the Continental United States From Municipal and Industrial Effluent. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(5):950‐964. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00576.x Abstract: Data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency Permit Compliance System national database were used to calculate annual total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) loads to surface waters from municipal and industrial facilities in six major regions of the United States for 1992, 1997, and 2002. Concentration and effluent flow data were examined for approximately 118,250 facilities in 45 states and the District of Columbia. Inconsistent and incomplete discharge locations, effluent flows, and effluent nutrient concentrations limited the use of these data for calculating nutrient loads. More concentrations were reported for major facilities, those discharging more than 1 million gallons per day, than for minor facilities, and more concentrations were reported for TP than for TN. Analytical methods to check and improve the quality of the Permit Compliance System data were used. Annual loads were calculated using “typical pollutant concentrations” to supplement missing concentrations based on the type and size of facilities. Annual nutrient loads for over 26,600 facilities were calculated for at least one of the three years. Sewage systems represented 74% of all TN loads and 58% of all TP loads. This work represents an initial set of data to develop a comprehensive and consistent national database of point‐source nutrient loads. These loads can be used to inform a wide range of water‐quality management, watershed modeling, and research efforts at multiple scales.     

Reconstructed Streamflows for the Headwaters of the Wind River,Wyoming, United States1

Abstract: Tree rings offer a means to extend observational records of streamflow by hundreds of years, but dendrohydrological techniques are not regularly applied to small tributary and headwaters gages. Here we explore the potential for extending three such gage records on small streams in the Wind River drainage of central Wyoming, United States. Using core samples taken from Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), piñon pine (Pinus edulis), and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) at 38 sites, we were able to reconstruct streamflows for the headwaters of the Wind River back to 1672 AD or earlier. The streamflow reconstructions for Bull Lake Creek above Bull Lake; the Little Popo Agie River near Lander, Wyoming; and Wind River near Dubois, Wyoming explained between 40% and 64% of the observed variance, and these extended records performed well in a variety of statistical verification tests. The full reconstructions show pronounced inter‐annual variability in streamflow, and these proxy records also point to the prevalence of severe, sustained droughts in this region. These reconstructions indicate that the 20th Century was relatively wet compared to previous centuries, and actual gage records may capture only a limited subset of potential natural variability in this area. Further analyses reveal how tree‐ring based reconstructions for small tributary and headwaters gages can be strongly influenced by the length and quality of calibration records, but this work also demonstrates how the use of a spatially extensive network of tree‐ring sites can improve the quality of these types of reconstructions.     

Environmental load of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from cattle manure in feedlots from the central and western United States

The first step in assessing the risk of water contamination by Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from feedlot cattle (Bos taurus) production systems is to quantify the number of C. parvum oocysts present in the fecal material deposited by feedlot cattle. Our primary objective for this project was to estimate the daily environmental load of C. parvum oocysts in fecal material deposited by feedlot cattle from across the central and western USA. Our secondary goal was to genotype isolates of C. parvum from feedlot cattle to help facilitate proper identification of mammalian sources of waterborne C. parvum. Based on 5274 fecal samples from 22 feedlots in seven states (California, Washington, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, Nebraska, and South Dakota), we estimated a point prevalence of C. parvum of 0.99 to 1.08% in fecal material from feedlot pens from a wide range of climates and a diverse range of feedlot management systems. On average, fresh fecal material from throughout feedlot systems (recent arrivals to nearing slaughter) contained about 1.3 to 3.6 oocysts/g feces, which roughly translates to about 2.8 x 10(4) to 1.4 x 10(5) oocysts/animal per day.     

Phosphorus in surface runoff from calcareous arable soils of the semiarid Western United States

Management strategies that minimize P transfer from agricultural land to water bodies are based on relationships between P concentrations in soil and runoff. This study evaluated such relationships for surface runoff generated by simulated sprinkler irrigation onto calcareous arable soils of the semiarid western United States. Irrigation was applied at 70 mm h(-1) to plots on four soils containing a wide range of extractable P concentrations. Two irrigation events were conducted on each plot, first onto dry soil and then after 24 h onto wet soil. Particulate P (>0.45 microm) was the dominant fraction in surface runoff from all soils and was strongly correlated with suspended sediment concentration. For individual soil types, filterable reactive P (<0.45 microm) concentrations were strongly correlated with all soil-test P methods, including environmental tests involving extraction with water (1:10 and 1:200 soil to solution ratio), 0.01 M CaCl(2), and iron strips. However, only the Olsen-P agronomic soil-test procedure gave models that were not significantly different among soils. Soil chemical differences, including lower CaCO(3) and water-extractable Ca, higher water-extractable Fe, and higher pH, appeared to account for differences in filterable reactive P concentrations in runoff from soils with similar extractable P concentrations. It may therefore be possible to use a single agronomic test to predict filterable reactive P concentrations in surface runoff from calcareous soils, but inherent dangers exist in assuming a consistent response, even for one soil within a single field.