Biodegradation and bioconversion of cellulose wastes using bacterial and fungal cells immobilized in radiopolymerized hydrogels

Annually, great amounts of cellulose wastes, which could be measured in many billions of tons, are produced worldwide as residues from agricultural activities and industrial food processing. Consequently, the use of microorganisms in order to remove, reduce or ameliorate these potential polluting materials is a real environmental challenge, which could be solved by a focused research concerning efficient methods applied in biological degradation processes. In this respect, the scope of this chapter is to present the state of the art concerning the biodegradation of redundant cellulose wastes from agriculture and food processing by continuous enzymatic activities of immobilized bacterial and fungal cells as improved biotechnological tools and, also, to report on our recent research concerning cellulose wastes biocomposting to produce natural organic fertilizers and, respectively, cellulose bioconversion into useful products, such as: ‘single-cell protein’ (SCP) or ‘protein-rich feed’ (PRF). In addition, there are shown some new methods to immobilize microorganisms on polymeric hydrogels such as: poly-acrylamide (PAA), collagen-poly-acrylamide (CPAA), elastin-poly-acrylamide (EPAA), gelatin-poly-acrylamide (GPAA), and poly-hydroxy-ethyl-methacrylate (PHEMA), which were achieved by gamma polymerization techniques. Unlike many other biodegradation processes, these methods were performed to preserve the whole viability of fungal and bacterial cells during long term bioprocesses and their efficiency of metabolic activities. The immobilization methods of viable microorganisms were achieved by cellular adherence mechanisms inside hydrogels used as immobilization matrices which control cellular growth by: reticulation size, porosity degree, hydration rate in different colloidal solutions, organic and inorganic compounds, etc. The preparative procedures applied to immobilize bacterial and fungal viable cells in or on radiopolymerized hydrogels and, also, their use in cellulose wastes biodegradation are discussed in detail. In all such performed experiments were used pure cell cultures of the following cellulolytic microorganisms: Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis from bacteria, and Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus florida, and Trichoderma viride from fungi. These species of microorganisms were isolated from natural habitats, then purified by microbiological methods, and finally, tested for their cellulolytic potential. The cellulose biodegradation, induced especially by fungal cultures, used as immobilized cells in continuous systems, was investigated by enzymatic assays and the bioconversion into protein-rich biomass was determined by mycelial protein content, during such long time processes. The specific changes in cellular development of immobilized bacterial and fungal cells in PAA hydrogels emphasize the importance of physical structure and chemical properties of such polymeric matrices used for efficient preservation of their metabolic activity, especially to perform in situ environmental applications involving cellulose biodegradation by using immobilized microorganisms as long-term viable biocatalysts.     

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY HEATED WASTE WATER DISCHARGE INTO THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT1

Discharge of heated waste water may affect the entire aquatic ecosystem–the interrelated biological, chemical, physical system–and, if the temperature change is large, may destroy the capacity of the ecosystem to serve a variety of beneficial purposes. However, it is possible to discharge heated waste water in carefully controlled amounts without seriously degrading the aquatic ecosystem. There are four basic alternatives which are open to us with regard to the heated waste water problem which we may choose singly or in various combinations: (1) Placing all heated, waste water in streams, lakes, and oceans without regard to the effects. Thus considering the environmental damage as a necessary consequence of our increased power demand. (2) Using, but not abusing, existing ecosystems. This means regulating the heated waste water discharge to fit the receiving capacity of the ecosystem. (3) Finding alternative ways to dissipate or beneficially use waste heat. (4) Modifying ecosystems to fit the new temperature conditions. We are all dependent upon a life-support system which is partly industrial and partly ecological. Unfortunately, we have reached a stage of development where the non-expandable, ecological portion of our life-support system is endangered by the expanding industrial portion. Optimal function and full beneficial use of both portions of our life-support system will only be possible if a variety of disciplines and diverse points of view can cooperate and work together effectively. Since wastes in amounts that are acceptable taken one at a time may be lethal collectively, environmental management should be on a regional basis.     

Fish bioassay monitoring of waste effluents

Spills of toxic materials into bodies of water receiving industrial waste discharges can be prevented only if frequent or continuous assessments of effluent quality can be made. Currently available methods can automatically measure individual physical or chemical waste components but cannot assess toxicity caused by the interaction of components or the presence of an unsuspected material. Aquatic organisms, in contrast, respond to their total environment and in this way integrate the effects of all the various chemical and physical waste parameters.This study evaluates the possibility of using the continuously and automatically recorded responses of fish to monitor the toxicity of industrial waste effluents. A review of previously developed toxicity monitoring systems is followed by a field evaluation of a method that uses the computer-monitored ventilatory patterns of 12 bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque) to monitor the toxicity of an industrial waste effluent as it flows into a river. No known toxic spills occurred in the effluent during the operation of this system, but acetone added to the effluent waste caused responses from the fish at concentrations which peaked near the 96-hr LC₅₀ level. Some responses were also noted when no known toxicant was present; these were related to environmental disturbances and system design problems. Recommendations are made for the design of future biologic monitoring units.     

Sequential bioconversion of used paper to sugars by cellulases from Trichoderma reesei and Penicillium funiculosum

Used paper, a potential resource of alternative energy, can be recycled but mostly it forms a significant component of solid waste. Used office paper, foolscap paper, filter paper and newspaper have been treated with cellulase from Trichoderma reesei and Penicillium funiculosum to bioconvert their cellulose component into sugars. Both non-pretreated and pretreated paper was incubated successively with the two cellulases during four consecutive incubation periods of 1 h each. The amount of sugars released during this sequential treatment was compared with the total sugar produced during a 4 h period of continuous incubation with each enzyme system independently. Pre-treatment milling of paper proved to effectively increase the sugar formation under all incubation conditions. Successive incubation with the two enzyme systems of both non-pretreated and pretreated paper materials was more efficient than the corresponding continuous bioconversion. The highest relative sugar yield was experienced during successive treatment of pretreated materials when T. reesei cellulase initiated the degradation. However, maximum bioconversion of pretreated newspaper was obtained when P. funiculosum initiated degradation. Pretreated foolscap paper was the most susceptible substrate with maximum bioconversion when exposed to both forms of successive cellulase treatment.     

Control of environmental impact with modern chemical technology

Here are assembled representative excerpts from a new text in applied chemistry. They illustrate the well-referenced treatment of industrial processes that are here considered with their related emission control problems and solutions. A brief account of general aspects of the industry is followed by surveys of the significance and technical aspects of air and water pollution chemistry. Consideration is given to emission avoidance or containment, waste treatment, and waste disposal options as they relate to both of these environmental areas. Details of salt recovery and the products of brine electrolysis plus environmental aspects of these operations are treated as examples of some of the processes discussed. Also covered are fertilizer constituent preparation, formulation, and use with consideration of the large-scale effects of each of these activities. Detailed reference is made to the chemical technology and emission control aspects of the pulp and paper industry and refinery operations. Throughout, integral process changes and waste recycling practices are directly related to emission control aspects of each process in a way to be useful to the student and professional alike. These excerpts are extracted from one of the first, single volume accounts to take this unified approach to the subject.Extract from the bookModern Chemical Technology and Emission Control by M. B. Hocking, published by Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo (1985).     

Traditional Coping Mechanism and Environmental Sustainability Strategies in Nnewi, Nigeria

Nnewi is situated some 30 kilometres South East of Onitsha in Anambra State in the southeastern part of Nigeria. This highly commercial town has undergone rapid urbanisation and industrialisation within the past two decades, since the end of the 1967–1970 Nigerian civil war. The Igbo community of the study area had traditionally employed bioconversion methods and other indigenous technology to process or recycle bio and non-degradable wastes. Industrialisation has enjoyed priority status in this locality as a requirement for modernisation and economic progress. The rapid urbanisation, aggressive industrialisation, and the attendant uncontrolled population growth have had a deleterious impact on the environment. There is now a wide range of industrial wastes that are released daily into the environment. Effects of these activities on the socio-cultural practices of the people, plant genetic resources and the environment are highlighted. In addition to palliative measures suggested here, a call is made to revisit the successful indigenous waste treatment and management technology formerly practised by the Igbo community. The importance of combining modern biotechnological approaches with the indigenous technology, norms and practices of Nwewi people to effect suitable waste treatment and management, as well as improving the living habits and the education of the people about their environment, is recommended. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Glassceramics obtained from industrial waste

Large areas of Latvia are contaminated with industrial waste: metallurgical slag, fly-ash, etching refuse, peat, and coal ash as well as glass waste which often contain dangerous substances. From the environmental point of view this waste should be neutralised. As this waste also contains valuable chemical compounds, it can be considered as a raw material for the generation of new materials. One method of utilisation is to produce recycled materials — street plates, decorative tiles, or floor tiles. Dense sintered glassceramics with a water uptake of 0.34–3.23 wt.%, a final density of 2.93–3.05 g/cm³, and a bending strength of 80–96 MPa have been created from industrial waste. The mast chemically durable glassceramics contained clay additions. Thus, the material containing only waste had a durability (mass loss) of 3.02% in 0.1 N HCl, while the composition containing 30% clay addition had a durability of 0.2% in 0.1 N HCl.     

Multi-objective optimization of waste and resource management in industrial networks – Part I: Model description

This article presents a general multi-objective mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) optimization model aimed at providing decision support for waste and resources management in industrial networks. The MILP model combines material flow analysis, process models of waste treatments and other industrial processes, life cycle assessment, and mathematical optimization techniques within a unified framework. The optimization is based on a simplified representation of industrial networks that makes use of linear process models to describe the flows of mass and energy. Waste-specific characteristics, e.g. heating value or heavy metal contamination, are considered explicitly along with potential technologies or process configurations. The systems perspective, including both provision of waste treatment and industrial production, enables constraints imposed upon the systems, e.g. available treatment capacities, to be explicitly considered in the model. The model output is a set of alternative system configurations in terms of distribution of waste and resources that optimize environmental and economic performance. The MILP also enables quantification of the improvement potential compared to a given reference state. Trade-offs between conflicting objectives are identified through the generation of a set of Pareto-efficient solutions. This information supports the decision making process by revealing the quantified performance of the efficient trade-offs without relying on weighting being expressed prior to the analysis. Key features of the modeling approach are illustrated in a hypothetical case. The optimization model described in this article is applied in a subsequent paper (Part II) to assess and optimize the thermal treatment of sewage sludge in a region in Switzerland.     

Production of bio-fertilizer by biotransformation of poultry waste enriched with molasses and algae

This research work consists on valorizing poultry waste by biotransformation into biofertilizers, associating this agro-industrial waste with algae (abundant natural resources) and molasses (a by-product of the sugar refining industry) ensuring a good contribution of nutritional chemical elements and obtaining a balanced formulation. A total of seven different formulations of the above three components, were examined in a simplex centroid design. A fungal inoculum of Aspergillus niger was used as a fermentation agent for better quality of biotransformation. The monitoring of this biotransformation is ensured during 15 days by following the evolution of physicochemical and microbiological parameters and, to understand the bioconversion of the simple compounds of the biofertilizer mixture such as short aliphatic chains, sugar, and amino acids into soluble mineral compounds, a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis was carried out before and after biotransformation. Finally, germination and fertilization tests were performed to evaluate the efficiency of the final product on a barley crop. The overall results of the present study showed that the mixture which contained 68.75% poultry waste, 12.5% molasses, and 18.75% algae presented the better microbiological and chemical safety criteria required for a good biofertilizer according to NF U44-551 standard.     

Industrial symbiosis and waste recovery in an Indian industrial area

Recovery, reuse and recycling of industrial residuals, often dismissed as wastes, are common in India and other industrializing countries largely due to lower associated costs. Some wastes are reused within the facility where they are generated, others are reused directly by nearby industrial facilities, and some are recycled via the formal and informal recycling markets. Direct inter-firm reuse is the cornerstone of the phenomenon termed industrial symbiosis, where firms cooperate in the exchange of material and energy resources. This study applies material flow analysis to an economically diverse industrial area in South India to characterize the recovery, reuse and recycling of industrial residuals. It quantifies the generation of waste materials from 42 companies as well as the materials that are directly traded across facilities and those that are recycled or disposed. This study encompasses a business cluster in Mysore in the State of Karnataka, and is the first in India to thoroughly quantify material flows to identify existing symbiotic connections in an industrial area. Examined industries in this industrial area generate 897,210 metric tons of waste residuals annually, and recovered 99.5% of these, 81% with reused by the companies that generated them, with one company, a sugar refinery, processing most of this amount. Geographic data show that operations within 20 km of the industrial area receive over 90% of residuals exiting facility gates. Two-thirds of this amount goes directly to other economic actors for reuse. This study makes key contributions to the literature in distinguishing how particular types of materials are reused in different ways, the geographic extent of symbiotic activities and the important role of the informal sector in industrial waste management in industrializing regions.     

Phosphorus recovery and recycling from waste: An appraisal based on a French case study

Phosphate rocks, used for phosphorus (P) fertilizer production, are a non-renewable resource at the human time scale. Their depletion at the global scale may threaten global food and feed security. To prevent this depletion, improved P resource recycling from food chain waste to agricultural soils and to the food and feed industry is often presented as a serious option. However, waste streams are often complex and their recycling efficiency is poorly characterized. The aim of this paper is to estimate the P recovery and recycling potential from waste, considering France as a case study. We assessed the P flows in food processing waste, household wastewater and municipal waste at the country scale using a substance flow analysis for the year 2006. We also quantified the P recycling efficiency as the fraction of P in waste that ultimately reached agricultural soils or was recycled in the food and feed industry. Efforts were made to limit data uncertainty by cross-checking multiple data sources concerning P content in waste materials. Results showed that, in general, P recovery in waste was high but that the overall P recycling efficiency was only 51% at the country scale. In particular, P recycling efficiency was 75% for industrial waste, 43% for household wastewater and 47% for municipal waste. The remaining P was discharged into water bodies or landfilled, causing P-induced environmental problems as well as losses of nutrient resources. Major P losses were through food waste (which amounted to 39% of P in available food) and treated wastewater, and the findings were confirmed through cross-checking with alternative data sources. Options for improving P resource recycling and, thereby, reducing P fertilizer use were quantified but appeared to be less promising than scenarios based on reduced food waste or redesigned agricultural systems.     

Production of vermifertilizer from guar gum industrial wastes by using composting earthworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perionyx sansibaricus</Emphasis> (Perrier)

Efforts have been made to convert the guar gum industrial waste into a value-added product, by employing a new earthworm species for vermicomposting e.g. Perionyx sansibaricus (Perrier) (Megascolecidae), under laboratory conditions. Industrial lignocellulosic waste was amended with other organic supplements (saw dust and cow dung); and three types of vermibeds were prepared: guar gum industrial waste + cow dung + saw dust in 40: 30: 30 ratio (T₁), guar gum industrial waste + cow dung + saw dust in 60: 20: 20 ratio (T_2,), and guar gum industrial waste + cow dung + saw dust in 75: 15: 10 ratio (T₃). As compared to initial concentrations, vermicomposts exhibited a decrease in organic C content (5.0–11.3%) and C:N ratio (11.1–24.4%) and an increase in total N (18.4–22.8%), available P (39.7–92.4%), and exchangeable K (9.4–19.7%) contents, after 150 days of vermicomposting. A vermicomposting coefficient (VC) was used to compare of vermicomposting with the experimental control (composting). P. sansibaricus exhibited maximum value of mean individual live weight (742.8 ± 21.1 mg), biomass gain (442.94 ± 21.8 mg), growth rate (2.95 ± 0.15 mg day⁻¹), cocoon numbers (96.0 ± 5.1) and reproduction rate (cocoons worm⁻¹ day⁻¹) (0.034 ± 0.001) in T₂ treatment. In T₃ maximum mortality (30.0 ± 4.01 %) in earthworm population was observed. Overall, T₂ vermibed appeared as an ideal substrate to manage guar gum industrial waste effectively. Vermicomposting can be proposed as a low-input basis technology to convert industrial waste into value-added biofertilizer.     

Public participation in plastics recycling schemes

Without public contributions, recycling from domestic waste would not be possible. In order to support recycling projects it is important to try to understand who recycles, how they recycle, and why they recycle. This paper presents the results of a structured survey of 500 members of the public served by schemes to collect plastics waste for recycling. Data were gathered on the characteristics, behaviours and motivations of recyclers. The authors also sought to discover how the public perceive plastics compared to other materials, and as a recyclable material. Responses were collected in such a way that the awareness of the recyclability of materials could be compared with the recycling behaviour of respondents. An element of comparison was introduced between those served by a system of bottle banks (bring scheme) and those covered by a household collection (collect scheme). The survey results are reported and their implications for the management of post-consumer plastics waste collection schemes are discussed.     

Voluntary recycling despite disincentives

This paper assesses the determinants of take-up of a voluntary waste separation scheme, in a scenario where residents sorted, stored and paid for collection of recycling waste even though mixed waste was collected at the kerbside more conveniently, free of charge and without any quantity limits. Uptake of the scheme was positive, persistent and diverse across localities, offering an opportunity to assess the factors determining voluntary participation in the presence of disincentives. We employ a unique panel data-set (n = 4,644) from Malta, including data on recyclable waste kilogrammes collected over the first 86 weeks of the scheme's operation. Drawing on insights from environmental economics and psychology, a model is empirically estimated. Results indicate that uptake is suppressed by the initial constraints households may face and stimulated by collection frequency. Political vote is an important determinant of participation and this interacts with scheme promotion to create diverse uptake rates.     

Sources and Sinks of Phosphorus for a Perturbed Stream and the Effects of Mineral Deposits1

Effler, Steven W., Anthony R. Prestigiacomo, David A. Matthews, and Feng Peng, 2012. Sources and Sinks of Phosphorus for a Perturbed Stream and the Effects of Mineral Deposits. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(2): 321‐335. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00617.x Abstract: Patterns of concentrations and loading rates of multiple forms of phosphorus (P) are resolved and analyzed along Ninemile Creek, New York, a stream perturbed by a domestic waste discharge and residual effects of a closed industry. This analysis is based on biweekly monitoring of total, dissolved, and soluble reactive P (SRP) for 19 months at four sites that bracket each of these effects, and 15 years of biweekly measurements at the two sites that bound industrial deposits. The minerogenic particle populations of the stream and the surficial sediments along the reach with extensive CaCO₃ and clay mineral deposits are characterized with an individual particle analysis technique. Mass balance analyses depict: (1) increasing nonpoint inputs of particulate and dissolved organic P along the stream length; (2) input of P from a domestic waste facility, almost entirely in the form of SRP; and (3) a compensating downstream loss of SRP over the reach with the extensive industrial deposits of CaCO₃. The downstream sink process for SRP is attributed to sorption processes with minerogenic deposits. The domestic waste‐based source and the compensating industrial waste‐based sink are noteworthy fluxes relative to other prevailing loads received by downstream Onondaga Lake, for which a major rehabilitation program targeting cultural eutrophication is underway. The P source/sink conditions of this stream are considered in the context of this rehabilitation program.     

Recycling and reducing packaging waste: How the United States compares to other countries

This report summarizes current developments in the United States and 18 other industrial countries regarding packaging waste. It presents available data concerning the types, amounts, and methods of managing such waste and provides information concerning the policies established or under consideration to reduce the amount of such waste being disposed. The countries discussed are all members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).In recent years, waste disposal capacity has become more scarce in most OECD countries. As a result, waste management policies have focused on efforts to reduce and recycle major components of the waste stream. Packaging represents about one-third of municipal solid waste in many countries. Because of this, measures to reduce the amount and toxicity of packaging and to encourage its recycling are currently being considered in at least 18 OECD countries. In addition, the EC and the Nordic Council are developing programs to address packaging on a regional basis.The report is divided into four main sections. Section I summarizes available information for the OECD countries. The second section discusses waste generation and recycling rates for six types of packaging material: paper, glass, metal, plastic, wood, and composites. The third section discusses key questions raised by the information presented in the report. The fourth briefly discusses packaging waste issues facing the Congress.In general, the report finds, other countries use less packaging than the United States, recycle more of it, and are considering policy measures stronger than the measures generally being considered in America. As noted in detail, other countries have adopted or are developing requirements that:

&#x02022; • set mandatory requirements for packaging waste reduction;

&#x02022; • require reusable or refillable packaging;

&#x02022; • impose taxes to discourage single-use packages;

&#x02022; • prohibit the use of non-recyclable packaging,

&#x02022; • prohibit or limit disposal of packaging, and

&#x02022; • require manufacturers of packaging materials to collect and recycle post-consumer waste.

Perhaps the most fundamental issue raised by these approaches is whether local governments will continue to bear responsibility for funding and operating recycling programs or whether all or some of this responsibility might be shifted to industry. To date, this issue has not been joined in the Congress directly; however, there is a growing consensus in other countries concerning the advantages of industry responsibility.     

完善废旧资源进口和加工贸易环境的思考

进口利用废旧资源在解决我国原生资源不足、节约能源、降低环境负荷、满足日益增长的物资需要具有重要的意义,但进口废旧资源会因夹带、处置加工等环节带来环境污染.文章梳理了我国允许废旧资源进口利用的背景需求,探讨了科学识别进口废旧资源、加工利用相关行业产生的环境问题,提出了进一步加强环境监管的对策方案,以推进废旧资源进口和加工贸易的健康发展.     

Waste in the Inner City: asset or assault?

In an unequal society, undesirable wastes often end up in the poorest and least powerful communities, becoming part of the economic and environmental milieu of the inner city. Two contradictory responses to waste reflect contrasting theoretical paradigms. Some wastes can become assets in local economic development, creating incomes through scavenging, industrial jobs in recycling plants or new businesses using locally available materials. Other wastes are an assault on the community that receives them; toxic wastes, polluting facilities and industrial by-products often create local health hazards rather than development. Waste as an asset is consistent with the free market model of economics. The inner city, 'endowed' with waste materials and low-wage labour, has a comparative advantage in labour-intensive processing of materials that the rest of society has discarded. Waste as an assault on the community is consistent with a different model of environmental risk. Some by-products of industry are so hazardous that they should not be produced, or should be tightly regulated. Each model has a realm of validity; the balance between the two depends on which wastes are hazardous, and which are just ugly resources waiting to be discovered.     

Waste in the Inner City: Asset or assault?

In an unequal society, undesirable wastes often end up in the poorest and least powerful communities, becoming part of the economic and environmental milieu of the inner city. Two contradictory responses to waste reflect contrasting theoretical paradigms. Some wastes can become assets in local economic development, creating incomes through scavenging, industrial jobs in recycling plants or new businesses using locally available materials. Other wastes are an assault on the community that receives them; toxic wastes, polluting facilities and industrial by-products often create local health hazards rather than development. Waste as an asset is consistent with the free market model of economics. The inner city, 'endowed' with waste materials and low-wage labour, has a comparative advantage in labour-intensive processing of materials that the rest of society has discarded. Waste as an assault on the community is consistent with a different model of environmental risk. Some by-products of industry are so hazardous that they should not be produced, or should be tightly regulated. Each model has a realm of validity; the balance between the two depends on which wastes are hazardous, and which are just ugly resources waiting to be discovered.     

Impact of food industrial waste on anaerobic co-digestion of sewage sludge and pig manure

The performance of an anaerobic digestion process is much dependent on the type and the composition of the material to be digested. The effects on the degradation process of co-digesting different types of waste were examined in two laboratory-scale studies. In the first investigation, sewage sludge was co-digested with industrial waste from potato processing. The co-digestion resulted in a low buffered system and when the fraction of starch-rich waste was increased, the result was a more sensitive process, with process overload occurring at a lower organic loading rate (OLR). In the second investigation, pig manure, slaughterhouse waste, vegetable waste and various kinds of industrial waste were digested. This resulted in a highly buffered system as the manure contributed to high amounts of ammonia. However, it is important to note that ammonia might be toxic to the micro-organisms. Although the conversion of volatile fatty acids was incomplete the processes worked well with high gas yields, 0.8-1.0 m3 kg(-1) VS.