Towards global phosphorus security: a systems framework for phosphorus recovery and reuse options

Human intervention in the global phosphorus cycle has mobilised nearly half a billion tonnes of the element from phosphate rock into the hydrosphere over the past half century. The resultant water pollution concerns have been the main driver for sustainable phosphorus use (including phosphorus recovery). However the emerging global challenge of phosphorus scarcity with serious implications for future food security, means phosphorus will also need to be recovered for productive reuse as a fertilizer in food production to replace increasingly scarce and more expensive phosphate rock. Through an integrated and systems framework, this paper examines the full spectrum of sustainable phosphorus recovery and reuse options (from small-scale low-cost to large-scale high-tech), facilitates integrated decision-making and identifies future opportunities and challenges for achieving global phosphorus security. Case studies are provided rather than focusing on a specific technology or process. There is no single solution to achieving a phosphorus-secure future: in addition to increasing phosphorus use efficiency, phosphorus will need to be recovered and reused from all current waste streams throughout the food production and consumption system (from human and animal excreta to food and crop wastes). There is a need for new sustainable policies, partnerships and strategic frameworks to develop renewable phosphorus fertilizer systems for farmers. Further research is also required to determine the most sustainable means in a given context for recovering phosphorus from waste streams and converting the final products into effective fertilizers, accounting for life cycle costs, resource and energy consumption, availability, farmer accessibility and pollution.     

Modeling biogeochemical processes of phosphorus for global food supply

Harvests of crops, their trade and consumption, soil erosion, fertilization and recycling of organic waste generate fluxes of phosphorus in and out of the soil that continuously change the worldwide spatial distribution of total phosphorus in arable soils. Furthermore, due to variability in the properties of the virgin soils and the different histories of agricultural practices, on a planetary scale, the distribution of total soil phosphorus is very heterogeneous. There are two key relationships that determine how this distribution and its change over time affect crop yields. One is the relationship between total soil phosphorus and bioavailable soil phosphorus and the second is the relationship between bioavailable soil phosphorus and yields. Both of these depend on environmental variables such as soil properties and climate. We propose a model in which these relationships are described probabilistically and integrated with the dynamic feedbacks of P cycling in the human ecosystem. The model we propose is a first step towards evaluating the large-scale effects of different nutrient management scenarios. One application of particular interest is to evaluate the vulnerability of different regions to an increased scarcity in P mineral fertilizers. Another is to evaluate different regions’ deficiency in total soil phosphorus compared with the level at which they could sustain their maximum potential yield without external mineral inputs of phosphorus but solely by recycling organic matter to close the nutrient cycle.     

The nitrogen and phosphorus footprints of food products in Yemen over the last 57 years

Food nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) footprints are indicators for determining the losses of N and P over food production (FP) and food consumption (FC) chain. Yemen is an interesting case because, given the country’s heavy dependence on food imports, food insecurity, and poverty, the N footprint (NF) and P footprint (PF) could affect its future development. However, NF and PF over time have not yet been studied in Yemen. Therefore, this is the first paper to compute the NF and PF in Arabian Peninsula (a case study from Yemen) by an adjusted model of N-Calculator, by computing virtual N (VNFs) and virtual P (VPFs) factors for main foodstuffs. The NF (kg N cap^?1 year^?1) and PF (kg P cap^?1 year^?1) elevated from 5.56 and 1.20 in the 1960s to 15.2 and 4.79 during 2011–2017, respectively, while the national NF (Gg [10⁹ g] N year^?1) and national PF (Gg P year^?1) increased from 27.7 and 6.77 in the 1960s to 358 and 122 during 2011–2017, respectively. Cereal was the largest contributor to the NF and PF in Yemen over the past 57 years. FP contributes approximately 80% and 86% of the total NF and PF during 2011–2017. Therefore, if possible, the best way for consumers and farmers in Yemen to decrease NF and PF is to focus efforts on increasing FP and FC of foodstuffs with less VNFs and VPFs. The consumption of vegetable-fruit, legumes, starchy, eggs, poultry, and fish should be increased as their NF and PF are low. However, people in Yemen suffer from shortage of resources and lack of awareness, and thus they do not have the opportunity to choose foodstuffs that are low in NF and PF. Accordingly, policymakers should encourage integrated approaches that introduce powerful tools for controlling crop and livestock production in conjunction with enhancements in nutrient use efficiency.

     

植物滞留系统中磷污染物的迁移转化

植物滞留系统作为一种低影响开发 (LID) 雨水管理措施,能有效去除雨水径流中的各种污染物。为探究磷污染物在介质中的运移机理尤其是介质中磷形态的运移,通过对填料层土壤介质施加不同添加剂对磷的去除效果,以及介质中各形态磷转化机理进行研究。结果表明：土壤介质添加剂为葡萄糖、淀粉时,加入淀粉的混合介质对磷的去除率比土壤介质高,对介质中稳定有机磷及中等稳定有机磷含量变化情况没有明显影响,但介质中铁磷有一定增加。与土壤介质相比,土壤与粉煤灰混合介质对磷的去除率明显提高,且混合介质中的水溶性磷、钙磷、铝磷增加量明显增大。改变人工模拟雨水pH的实验结果显示,在含氧量高的土壤介质表层,当模拟雨水pH为7~12,介质中的无机磷中水溶性磷的增加量明显;然而,当pH小于7时,介质中的无机磷中水溶性磷 (Ads-P) 的增加量微弱。柱实验表明,在植物滞留系统深度为40 cm处开始,随着深度的增加,雨水径流的出水中各类磷的质量分数降低趋势变得缓慢。其中,每组实验柱对磷去除率的平均值由大到小的顺序为：粉煤 灰+砂土>砂土>淀粉+砂土。随着深度的增加,这3组实验柱介质中的铝磷和中等活性有机磷均减少。该研究成果可为植物滞留系统磷污染物的迁移转化提供参考。     

Studies on the phosphorus sorption capacity of substrates used in constructed wetland systems

Langmuir sorption isotherm was used to screen various substrates for use in removing phosphorus (P) in constructed wetlands (CW). The nine tested substrates included four sands, two soils, bentonite, and two industrial by-products of furnace slag and fly ash. Results showed that the furnace slag had the highest P sorption capacity (8.89 g Pk g(-1)), followed was the fly ash (8.81 g P kg(-1)), and that of sand II was the lowest. Different kinds of sands also showed varying P sorption capacity (0.13-0.29 g P kg(-1)). P sorption capacity was influenced by both the physico-chemical characteristics of the substrates and the amount of organic matter (OM) added. Lifetime of sand II for P sorption estimated by Langmuir P sorption maximum was up to only 9 months in full-scale systems, while that of furnace slag could be used for up to 22 yr. Furnace slag has great potential as a CW substrate, due to its high P sorption capacity. The expected lifetime of constructed wetlands for P removal is strongly influenced by the choice of adsorbing substrate.     

Modelling the geochemical fate and transport of wastewater-derived phosphorus in contrasting groundwater systems

A 1D reactive transport model (RTM) is used to obtain a mechanistic understanding of the fate of phosphorus (P) in the saturated zone of two contrasting aquifer systems. We use the field data from two oxic, electron donor-poor, wastewater-impacted, sandy Canadian aquifers, (Cambridge and Muskoka sites) as an example of a calcareous and non-calcareous groundwater system, respectively, to validate our reaction network. After approximately 10 years of wastewater infiltration, P is effectively attenuated within the first 10 m down-gradient of the source mainly through fast sorption onto calcite and Fe oxides. Slow, kinetic sorption contributes further to P removal, while precipitation of phosphate minerals (strengite, hydroxyapatite) is quantitatively unimportant in the saturated zone. Nitrogen (N) dynamics are also considered, but nitrate behaves essentially as a conservative tracer in both systems. The model-predicted advancement of the P plume upon continued wastewater discharge at the calcareous site is in line with field observations. Model results suggest that, upon removal of the wastewater source, the P plume at both sites will persist for at least 20 years, owing to desorption of P from aquifer solids and the slow rate of P mineral precipitation. Sensitivity analyses for the non-calcareous scenario (Muskoka) illustrate the importance of the sorption capacity of the aquifer solids for P in modulating groundwater N:P ratios in oxic groundwater. The model simulations predict the breakthrough of groundwater with high P concentrations and low N:P ratios after 17 years at 20 m from the source for an aquifer with low sorption capacity (<0.02% w/w Fe(OH)(3)). In this type of system, denitrification plays a minor role in lowering the N:P ratios because it is limited by the availability of labile dissolved organic matter.     

土壤-植物系统中磷对重金属生物有效性的影响机制

磷对植物吸收重金属元素的影响作用属于植物营养和重金属污染生态研究的前沿.污染土壤中施入磷是否能够降低重金属离子的生物有效性,除了与重金属离子本身特性有关外,还与含磷化合物的性质及土壤环境条件有关.在分析中,就土壤中磷与重金属离子间交互作用机制、土壤中影响磷降低重金属离子生物有效性的环境因子及磷与重金属交互作用的国内外研究进展作了简要综述,并对今后的研究提出了展望.     

Material flow analysis of phosphorus through food consumption in two megacities in northern China

The key stocks and flows of phosphorus (P) through food consumption in Beijing and Tianjin, two megacities in northern China, were explored using a material flow analysis (MFA) approach to construct a static model of P metabolism. A total of 4498 t P has accumulated with 72% of P flow imported through food consumption eventually remaining in Beijing in 2008. Around 64% of the total inflow of P (2670 t) remained in Tianjin in 2008. P in the uncollected sewage from both urban and rural residents and the effluents from sewage treatment plants has significant negative effects on water quality. An average of 55% the P flow remained in the sewage sludge through urban food consumption. The key problems in P metabolism and management in megacities are identified based on the quantitative analysis of P cycling through food consumption. Relevant solutions for improving P recycling efficiency are also discussed. It is important to link P flows with environmental regulations and to establish a strong coordination between urban and rural areas for nutrient recycling to attain sustainable development of megacities.     

Dust emissions created by low-level rotary-winged aircraft flight over desert surfaces

There is a dearth of information on dust emissions from sources that are unique to U.S. Department of Defense testing and training activities. Dust emissions of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 from low-level rotary-winged aircraft travelling (rotor-blade ≈7 m above ground level) over two types of desert surfaces (i.e., relatively undisturbed desert pavement and disturbed desert soil surface) were characterized at the Yuma Proving Ground (Yuma, AZ) in May 2007. Fugitive emissions are created by the shear stress of the outflow of high speed air created by the rotor-blade. The strength of the emissions was observed to scale primarily as a function of forward travel speed of the aircraft. Speed affects dust emissions in two ways: 1) as speed increases, peak shear stress at the soil surface was observed to decline proportionally, and 2) as the helicopter's forward speed increases its residence time over any location on the surface diminishes, so the time the downward rotor-generated flow is acting upon that surface must also decrease. The state of the surface over which the travel occurs also affects the scale of the emissions. The disturbed desert test surface produced approximately an order of magnitude greater emission than the undisturbed surface. Based on the measured emission rates for the test aircraft and the established scaling relationships, a rotary-winged aircraft similar to the test aircraft traveling 30 km h^?1 over the disturbed surface would need to travel 4 km to produce emissions equivalent to one kilometer of travel by a light wheeled military vehicle also traveling at 30 km h^?1 on an unpaved road. As rotary-winged aircraft activity is substantially less than that of off-road vehicle military testing and training activities it is likely that this source is small compared to emissions created by ground-based vehicle movements.     

天然黄铁矿的除磷性能

除磷是控制水体富营养化的重要手段。为了考察黄铁矿的除磷特征,采用序批实验,分别研究了反应时间、初始磷浓度和干扰离子（NH4＋、NO3- 和SO24-）对黄铁矿除磷的影响。动力学表明,黄铁矿的除磷过程符合伪二级动力学模型。pH=6．5时,磷的平衡去除量为6．82mg／kg。Langmuir方程能较好描述黄铁矿除磷的吸附等温过程,其磷的饱和吸附量为11．01mg／kg。NH4＋、NO3-和SO24- 对黄铁矿除磷基本没有影响。磷的去除主要是通过铁磷沉淀和铁氧化物及氢氧化物的吸附,去除的磷主要以可被生物利用的Fe、Al-P形态存在。黄铁矿的这些除磷性能和机制对选取黄铁矿作为人工湿地填料实现同步脱氮除磷具有重要指导作用。     

污泥消化液的磷浓度对anammox-HAP系统磷回收的影响

厌氧氨氧化-羟基磷酸钙(anammox-hydroxyapatite, anammox-HAP)技术可实现污泥厌氧消化液高效自养脱氮同步磷回收。污泥厌氧消化液中磷的浓度与污泥性质、厌氧消化过程相关,变化范围很大。为探索anammox-HAP系统中的磷回收效率,通过基于anammox-HAP长期运行的膨胀颗粒污泥床反应器,考察了不同进水磷浓度、pH和钙磷质量比（Ca/P）对磷回收效率及污泥特性的影响。结果表明：进水磷浓度在40~250 mg·L⁻¹时,膨胀颗粒污泥床反应器脱氮性能稳定,总氮去除率可达88.5%;磷回收效率与进水磷浓度、反应器内pH及进水Ca/P密切相关,磷回收效率最高为89.7%;高磷浓度下形成的颗粒污泥,有望实现高效的磷资源利用。本研究可为利用anammox-HAP系统实现磷回收提供参考。     

Towards a sustainable food production: modelling the impacts of climate change on maize and soybean production in Ghana

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The Ghanaian economy relies heavily on maize and soybean production. The entire maize and soybean production system is low-tech, making it extremely...     

Shaping more resilient and just food systems: Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted weaknesses in global food systems, as well as opening windows of opportunity for innovation and transformation. While the nature and extent of this crisis is rare, extreme climatic events will increase in magnitude and frequency, threatening similar societal impacts. It is therefore critical to identify mechanisms for developing food systems that are resilient to such impacts. We examine impacts of the crisis on UK food systems and how these further entrenched social inequalities. We present data on the experiences and actions of producers, consumers, and community organisers. The data were collected by adapting ongoing research to include surveys, interviews and online workshops focused on the pandemic. Actors’ responses to the pandemic foreshadow how enduring change to food systems can be achieved. We identify support required to enable these transformations and argue that it is vital that these opportunities are embedded in food justice principles which promote people-centred approaches to avoid exacerbating injustices prevalent pre-crisis. Learning from these experiences therefore provides insights for how to make food systems elsewhere more resilient and just.     

铁盐化学除磷对活性污泥生物除磷系统的影响

在小型处理系统中生物除磷同步化学除磷简便易行,但加入的除磷剂本身和形成的化学沉淀物的积累可能会对生物系统造成影响。采用序批式生物反应器,对铁盐的2种投加剂量下对活性污泥系统的影响进行了研究。结果表明,向SBR系统中连续投加15 mg·L-1三氯化铁,表观上系统总体的除磷效率较未投加前有一定幅度的提高,活性污泥的沉降性能得到改善,但这削弱了系统的内在生物除磷效力。随着化学除磷的进行,系统污泥胞内PHA含量减少、糖原含量增加;污泥中PAOs相对数量下降而GAOs的相对数量显著增加,优势菌发生演替。结束投加后,污泥的活性可以缓慢恢复。说明该浓度下长时间连续进行同步化学与生物除磷,会对系统造成一定的损害,但这种损害在停止化学除磷后具有一定的可恢复性。而连续投加3 mg·L-1三氯化铁的SBR系统总体除磷效率较未投加前有所提高,且没有对生物除磷系统产生明显抑制作用,能够较好实现化学除磷和生物除磷的协同。     

氯化亚铁活化过一硫酸盐同步去除氮磷及磷的回收

采用氯化亚铁(FeCl₂)活化过一硫酸盐(PMS)产生硫酸根自由基(${{\rm{SO}}^{\cdot -}_4} $)和氯自由基(Cl·),实现了水中${{\rm{NH}}_4^ +} $、${{\rm{PO}}_4^{3 - }}$的同步无害化去除及磷的回收。研究了Fe²⁺/PMS/Cl⁻体系中的反应机制,考察了PMS浓度、Fe²⁺/Cl⁻、溶液pH、温度、溶液共存${\rm{CO}}_3^{2 - }$浓度及腐殖酸(HA)浓度等条件对反应体系的影响。结果表明：当溶液pH为4.0、PMS投加量为20 mmol·L⁻¹、Fe²⁺/Cl⁻摩尔分数为1/12时,反应30 min后,溶液中的${{\rm{NH}}_4^ +} $去除率高达100%且以氮气(N₂)形式实现${{\rm{NH}}_4^ +} $无害化去除;${{\rm{PO}}_4^{3 - }}$的去除率也高达100%且以磷酸铁(FePO₄)沉淀形式被回收;随着PMS浓度、Fe²⁺/Cl⁻以及温度的升高,Fe²⁺/PMS/Cl⁻体系中,${{\rm{NH}}_4^ +} $去除率逐渐增大,但对${{\rm{PO}}_4^{3 - }}$的回收无明显影响;溶液中${\rm{CO}}_3^{2 - }$和HA的存在对${{\rm{NH}}_4^ +} $去除有抑制作用。通过自由基淬灭实验和ESR分析证明,${{\rm{SO}}^{\cdot -}_4 }$和Cl·在Fe²⁺/PMS/Cl⁻体系中起主要作用。本研究结果可为氮磷废水的处理及磷回收提供参考。     

生物脱氮除磷活性污泥系统复合模拟方法

为避免繁琐的参数校核工作,提出了活性污泥2 d号模型(ASM2d)和人工神经网络(ANNs)相结合的复合模拟方法。考察了复合方法在某污水处理厂生物脱氮除磷工艺中的应用情况。研究表明,ANNs能够准确地模拟出水实测值与未经校核的ASM2d机理模型的估计值之间的差值。利用Levenberg-Marquardt算法,对出水氨氮、总氮和总磷分别建立网络结构为5-12-1、5-8-1和5-8-1的ANNs子模型,将这些子模型输出同ASM2d机理模型输出相加便得到复合模型输出。复合模型估计值对前10.4 d(ANNs子模型训练数据时段)出水氨氮、总氮和总磷浓度的拟合平均绝对百分比误差分别为0.267、0.055和0.048;其对后2.6 d(ANNs子模型测试数据时段)出水氨氮、总氮和总磷浓度的预测平均绝对百分比误差分别为0.332、0.083和0.069。均方根误差、平均绝对误差等评价指标也表明复合模型能够给出合理的模拟结果。     

Labile organic carbon regulates phosphorus release from eroded soil transported into anaerobic coastal systems

Coastal eutrophication is expected to increase due to expanding and intensifying agriculture which causes a large amount of soil-associated P to be transported into aquatic systems. We performed anaerobic long-term incubations on field soil to mimic the conditions that eroded soil encounters in brackish sediments. The release of P from soil increased with the amount of labile organic C (acetate) addition and decreased with the soil/solution ratio. We deduce that in less-productive brackish systems, microbial Fe reduction allows for the maintenance of the coupled cycling of Fe and P and restricts the amount of P entering the oxic water. In more eutrophic systems, the formation of Fe sulfides as a result of SO₄ reduction inactivates Fe, and leads to a higher release of P, thus generating an adverse feedback effect. The dependence of the fate of soil-bound Fe and P on the trophic status of the receiving water should be recognized in eutrophication management.     

改良填料生物滞留池对雨水径流中磷的去除效果

针对生物滞留池在一定淹没区高度条件下同时添加碳源对P的去除效果波动较大问题,开展了生物滞留池填料改良方法的研究。通过构建3根模拟实验柱,分别填充传统填料、普通生物炭改良填料和铁改性生物炭改良填料,分析了不同生物炭改良填料生物滞留池在不同淹没区高度和不同落干期条件下对${\rm{PO}}_4^{3-} $-P的去除效果;同时,探讨了生物炭对生物滞留池填料的改良作用。研究结果表明：在淹没区高度为300 mm的条件下,铁改性生物炭改良填料生物滞留池对于${\rm{PO}}_4^{3-} $-P去除效果最好,平均去除率接近90%,而普通生物炭改良填料生物滞留池对${\rm{PO}}_4^{3-} $-P去除效果最差,平均去除率低于60%;同时,在不同落干期条件下,所有实验柱均未发生${\rm{PO}}_4^{3-} $-P淋出现象。铁改性生物炭改良填料生物滞留池在设有一定高度淹没区条件下对雨水径流中磷具有很好的去除效果,并对不同落干期变化具有较强的适应性。     

Capturing the lost phosphorus

Minable phosphorus (P) reserves are being depleted and will need to be replaced by recovering P that currently is lost from the agricultural system, causing water-quality problems. The largest two flows of lost P are in agricultural runoff and erosion (∼46% of mined P globally) and animal wastes (∼40%). These flows are quite distinct. Runoff has a very high volumetric flow rate, but a low P concentration; animal wastes have low flow rates, but a high P concentration together with a high concentration of organic material. Recovering the lost P in animal wastes is technically and economically more tractable, and it is the focus for this review of promising P-capture technologies. P capture requires that organic P be transformed into inorganic P (phosphate). For high-strength animal wastes, P release can be accomplished in tandem with anaerobic treatment that converts the energy value in the organic matter to CH₄, H₂, or electricity. Once present as phosphate, the P can be captured in a reusable form by four approaches. Most well developed is precipitation as magnesium or calcium solids. Less developed, but promising are adsorption to iron-based adsorbents, ion exchange to phosphate-selective solids, and uptake by photosynthetic microorganisms or P-selective proteins.