Guidelines for the evaluation and assessment of the sustainable use of resources and of wastes management at healthcare facilities.

This paper presents guidelines that can be used by managers of healthcare facilities to evaluate and assess the quality of resources and waste management at their facilities and enabling the principles of sustainable development to be addressed. The guidelines include the following key aspects which need to be considered when completing an assessment. They are: (a) general management; (b) social issues; (c) health and safety; (d) energy and water use; (e) purchasing and supply; (f) waste management (responsibility, segregation, storage and packaging); (g) waste transport; (h) recycling and re-use; (i) waste treatment; and (j) final disposal. They identify actions required to achieve a higher level of performance which can readily be applied to any healthcare facility, irrespective of the local level of social, economic and environmental development. The guidelines are presented, and the characteristics of facilities associated with sustainable (level 4) and unsustainable (level 0) healthcare resource and wastes management are outlined. They have been used to assess a major London hospital, and this highlighted a number of deficiencies in current practice, including a lack of control over purchasing and supply, and very low rates of segregation of municipal solid waste from hazardous healthcare waste.     

Influences of chemical activators on incinerator bottom ash

This research has applied different chemical activators to mechanically and thermally treated fine fraction (<14 mm) of incinerator bottom ash (IBA), in order to investigate the influences of chemical activators on this new pozzolanic material. IBA has been milled and thermally treated at 800 degrees C (TIBA). The TIBA produced was blended with Ca(OH)(2) and evaluated for setting time, reactivity and compressive strength after the addition of 0.0565 mole of Na(2)SO(4), K(2)SO(4), Na(2)CO(3), K(2)CO(3), NaOH, KOH and CaCl(2) into 100g of binder (TIBA+Ca(OH)(2)). The microstructures of activated IBA and hydrated samples have been characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetry (TG) analysis. Thermal treatment is found to produce gehlenite (Ca(2)Al(2)SiO(7)), wollastonite (CaSiO(3)) and mayenite (Ca(12)Al(14)O(33)) phases. The thermally treated IBA samples are significantly more reactive than the milled IBA. The addition of Na(2)CO(3) can increase the compressive strength and calcium hydroxide consumption at 28-day curing ages. However, the addition of Na(2)SO(4), K(2)SO(4), K(2)CO(3), NaOH and KOH reduces the strength and hydration reaction. Moreover, these chemicals produce more porous samples due to increased generation of hydrogen gas. The addition of CaCl(2) has a negative effect on the hydration of TIBA samples. Calcium aluminium oxide carbonate sulphide hydrate (Ca(4)Al(2)O(6)(CO(3))(0.67)(SO(3))(0.33)(H(2)O)(11)) is the main hydration product in the samples with activated IBA, except for the sample containing CaCl(2).     

Ethanol washing of PAH-contaminated soil and Fenton oxidation of washing solution

As a means to remediate soil contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, we investigated a combined process involving ethanol washing followed by a Fenton oxidation reaction. Artificial loamy soil was contaminated with various representative polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (i.e., fluorene, anthracene, pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, or benzo(a)pyrene) at concentrations ten times higher than regulatory soil standards of The Netherlands or Canada, and then washed four times in ethanol, which reduced the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination to below the regulatory standard. Fenton oxidation of ethanol solutions containing anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, pyrene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, benz(a)anthracene, benzo(j)fluoranthene, or indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene showed a removal efficiency of 73.3%–99.0%; by contrast, solutions containing naphthalene, fluorene, fluoranthene, phenanthrene, or benzo(b)fluoranthene showed a removal efficiency of 9.6%–27.6%. Since each of the nonremediated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, excluding benzo(b)fluoranthene, are easily biodegradable, these results indicate that the proposed treatment can be successfully applied to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated soil that does not contain high concentrations of benzo(b)fluoranthene. The main reaction products resulting from Fenton oxidation of ethanol solutions containing anthracene or benz(a)anthracene were anthraquinon or benz(a)anthracene-7,12-dione, respectively; while 1,8-naphthalic anhydride was produced by solutions of acenaphthylene and acenaphthene, and 9-fluorenone by a fluorene solution. Received: June 9, 1998 / Accepted: March 24, 1999     

Analysis of methanogenic activity in a thermophilic-dry anaerobic reactor: use of fluorescent in situ hybridization

Methanogenic activity in a thermophilic-dry anaerobic reactor was determined by comparing the amount of methane generated for each of the organic loading rates with the size of the total and specific methanogenic population, as determined by fluorescent in situ hybridization. A high correlation was evident between the total methanogenic activity and retention time [-0.6988Ln(x)+2.667] (R(2) 0.8866). The total methanogenic activity increased from 0.04x10(-8) mLCH(4) cell(-1)day(-1) to 0.38x10(-8) mLCH(4) cell(-1)day(-1) while the retention time decreased, augmenting the organic loading rates. The specific methanogenic activities of H(2)-utilizing methanogens and acetate-utilizing methanogens increased until they stabilised at 0.64x10(-8) mLCH(4) cell(-1)day(-1) and 0.33x10(-8) mLCH(4) cell(-1)day(-1), respectively. The methanogenic activity of H(2)-utilizing methanogens was higher than acetate-utilizing methanogens, indicating that maintaining a low partial pressure of hydrogen does not inhibit the acetoclastic methanogenesis or the anaerobic process.     

Biostabilization of municipal solid waste

A mechanical-biological process for municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment was monitored for one year. Mechanical pre-treatment provided two fractions. The oversize fraction (diameter > 50 mm) (yield of 600 g kg(-1) ww) (46 Mg day(-1)) was used for refuse derived fuel production, after undergoing a mechanical refining processes, because of low moisture content (200-250 g kg(-1)) and high calorific value (2500-2800 kcal kg ww(-1)). The undersize fraction (diameter < 50 mm) (yield 400 g kg(-1) ww) (30 Mg day(-1)) contained about 800 g kg(-1) of the MSW organic matter. This fraction was biologically treated using an aerobic process with an organic waste fraction from separate collection (77 Mg day(-1)) and recycled stabilized material (62 Mg day(-1)) obtained from end-product sieve (diameter < 20 mm) used as bulking agent. A retention time of three weeks was sufficient to obtain stabilized products in agreement with up-dated rules of the Lombardy Region (North Italy) regarding biostabilization and composting processes. Dynamic Respiration Index (DRI), such as required by both Lombardy Region rules and suggested by the European Community, was chosen in preference to other indices in order to assess the degree of biological stability of the end products. A mean DRI value of 1164 mg O2 kg SV(-1) h(-1) was obtained and is in agreement with the proposed limit of 1000+/-200 mg O2 kg SV(-1) h(-1). Self-heating test, potential biogas production and fermentable volatile solids were also used as parameters to describe the potential impact of treated waste, providing further useful information. Nevertheless, all of these methods revealed analytical or interpretative limits. A complete mass balance of the biological treatment section showed that, from a net input of 107 Mg day(-1), only 250 g kg(-1) (27 Mg day(-1)) of the waste needed to be landfilled, with 750 g kg(-1) (80 Mg day(-1)) being lost as CO2 and H2O.     

Effect of Additives on the Improvement of Mechanical and Degradable Properties of Photografted Jute Yarn with Acrylamide

The jute yarn was grafted with acrylamide monomer (AA) under ultraviolet (UV) radiation to modify its mechanical and degradable properties. A number of AA solutions of different concentrations in methanol (MeOH) along with photoinitiator Irgacure 907 [2-methyl-1-(4-methylthiophenyl)-2-morpholinopropanone-1] were prepared. The monomer concentration and irradiation time were optimized. Jute yarn grafted with 30% AA under UV radiation for 60 min showed of the highest polymer loading (PL) value of 22% with a enhanced tensile strength (TS) value of 195% and elongation at break (Eb) value of 256% compared to untreated jute yarn. To further improve the properties of jute yarn, a number of additives (1%) such as urea, polyvinylpyrrolidone, urethane acrylate, and urethane diacrylate were used in the AA (30%) solution. Among all the additives used, urea significantly influenced the PL (27%), TS (230%), and Eb (264%) values of the treated jute yarns. Water uptake and the degradation properties of treated and untreated jute yarn caused by simulated weathering and in soil (25% water) were also studied. The rate of degradation of grafted sample is lower then that of untreated sample. DSC studies showed the thermal stability of the AA plus urea grafted sample.     

Evaluation of aerated biofilter systems for microbial methane oxidation of poor landfill gas

In the long-term, landfills are producing landfill gas (LFG) with low calorific values. Therefore, the utilization of LFG in combined heat and power plants (CHP) is limited to a certain period of time. A feasible method for LFG treatment is microbial CH(4) oxidation. Different materials were tested in actively aerated lab-scale bio-filter systems with a volume of 0.167 m(3). The required oxygen for the microbial CH(4) oxidation was provided through perforated probes, which distributed ambient air into the filter material. Three air input levels were installed along the height of the filter, each of them adjusted to a particular flow rate. During the tests, stable degradation rates of around 28 g/(m(3) h) in a fine-grained compost material were observed at a CH(4) inlet concentration of 30% over a period of 148 days. Compared with passive (not aerated) tests, the CH(4) oxidation rate increased by a factor of 5.5. Therefore, the enhancement of active aeration on the microbial CH(4) oxidation was confirmed. At a O(2)/CH(4) ratio of 2.5, nearly 100% of the CH(4) load was decomposed. By lowering the ratio from 2.5 to 2, the efficiency fell to values from 88% to 92%. By varying the distribution to the three air input levels, the CH(4) oxidation process was spread more evenly over the filter volume.     

Estimation of mass transport parameters of gases for quantifying CH4 oxidation in landfill soil covers

Methane (CH(4)), which is one of the most abundant anthropogenic greenhouse gases, is produced from landfills. CH(4) is biologically oxidized to carbon dioxide, which has a lower global warming potential than methane, when it passes through a cover soil. In order to quantify the amount of CH(4) oxidized in a landfill cover soil, a soil column test, a diffusion cell test, and a mathematical model analysis were carried out. In the column test, maximum oxidation rates of CH(4) (V(max)) showed higher values in the upper part of the column than those in the lower part caused by the penetration of O(2) from the top. The organic matter content in the upper area was also higher due to the active microbial growth. The dispersion analysis results for O(2) and CH(4) in the column are counter-intuitive. As the upward flow rate of the landfill gas increased, the dispersion coefficient of CH(4) slightly increased, possibly due to the effect of mechanical dispersion. On the other hand, as the upward flow rate of the landfill gas increased, the dispersion coefficient of O(2) decreased. It is possible that the diffusion of gases in porous media is influenced by the counter-directional flow rate. Further analysis of other gases in the column, N(2) and CO(2), may be required to support this hypothesis, but in this paper we propose the possibility that the simulations using the diffusion coefficient of O(2) under the natural condition may overestimate the penetration of O(2) into the soil cover layer and consequently overestimate the oxidation of CH(4).     

Characterization of alkali-activated thermally treated incinerator bottom ash

The fine fraction (<14mm) of incinerator bottom ash (IBA) obtained from a UK energy from waste plant has been milled and thermally treated at 600, 700, 800 and 880 degrees C. Treated materials have been activated with Ca(OH)(2) (10wt%) and the setting times and compressive strengths at different curing times measured. In addition to decomposition of CaCO(3) to CaO, thermal treatment increases the content of gehlenite (Ca(2)Al(2)SiO(7)), wollastonite (CaSiO(3)) and mayenite (Ca(12)Al(14)O(33)). Thermally treated samples were significantly more reactive than milled IBA and heating to 700 degrees C produced a material which rapidly set. Silica, gehlenite and wollastonite were the main crystalline phases present in hydrated samples and a mixed sulphate-carbonate AFm-type phase (Ca(4)Al(2)O(6)(CO(3))(0.67)(SO(3))(0.33).11H(2)O) formed. Significant volumes of gas were generated during curing and this produced a macro-porous microstructure that limited strength to 2.8MPa. The new materials may have potential for use as controlled low-strength materials.     

A side-by-side comparison of two systems of sequencing coupled reactors for anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste.

The objective of this work was to compare the performance of two laboratory-scale, mesophilic systems aiming at the anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes (OFMSW). The first system consisted of two coupled reactors packed with OFMSW (PBR1.1-PBR1.2) and the second system consisted of an upflow anaerobic sludge bed reactor (UASB) coupled to a packed reactor (UASB2.1-PBR2.2). For the start-up phase, both reactors PBR 1.1 and the UASB 2.1 (also called leading reactors) were inoculated with a mixture of non-anaerobic inocula and worked with leachate and effluent full recirculation, respectively. Once a full methanogenic regime was achieved in the leading reactors, their effluents were fed to the fresh-packed reactors PBR1.2 and PBR2.2, respectively. The leading PBR 1.1 reached its full methanogenic regime after 118 days (Tm, time to achieve methanogenesis) whereas the other leading UASB 2.1 reactor reached its full methanogenesis regime after only 34 days. After coupling the leading reactors to the corresponding packed reactors, it was found that both coupled anaerobic systems showed similar performances regarding the degradation of the OFMSW. Removal efficiencies of volatile solids and cellulose and the methane pseudo-yield were 85.95%, 80.88% and 0.109 NL CH4 g(-1) VS(fed) in the PBR-PBR system; and 88.75%, 82.61% and 0.115 NL CH4 g(-1) VS(fed0 in the UASB-PBR system [NL, normalized litre (273 degrees K, 1 ata basis)]. Yet, the second system UASB-PBR system showed a faster overall start-up.     

Mass balances and life cycle inventory of home composting of organic waste

A comprehensive experimental setup with six single-family home composting units was monitored during 1 year. The composting units were fed with 2.6-3.5 kg organic household waste (OHW) per unit per week. All relevant consumptions and emissions of environmental relevance were addressed and a full life-cycle inventory (LCI) was established for the six home composting units. No water, electricity or fuel was used during composting, so the major environmental burdens were gaseous emissions to air and emissions via leachate. The loss of carbon (C) during composting was 63-77% in the six composting units. The carbon dioxide (CO(2)) and methane (CH(4)) emissions made up 51-95% and 0.3-3.9% respectively of the lost C. The total loss of nitrogen (N) during composting was 51-68% and the nitrous oxide (N(2)O) made up 2.8-6.3% of this loss. The NH(3) losses were very uncertain but small. The amount of leachate was 130 L Mg(-1) wet waste (ww) and the composition was similar to other leachate compositions from home composting (and centralised composting) reported in literature. The loss of heavy metals via leachate was negligible and the loss of C and N via leachate was very low (0.3-0.6% of the total loss of C and 1.3-3.0% of the total emitted N). Also the compost composition was within the typical ranges reported previously for home composting. The level of heavy metals in the compost produced was below all threshold values and the compost was thus suitable for use in private gardens.     

The Effect of CTBN Concentrations on the Kinetic Parameters of Decomposition of Blends of Epoxy Resins Modified with Carboxyl-Terminated Liquid Copolymer

Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol—A (DGEBA)—based epoxy resin was blended in the ratio of 3:1 (weight basis) with cycloaliphatic epoxy (CAE) resin. The prepared blend sample was further blended with different weight percentages of carboxyl-terminated butadiene acrylonitrile copolymer (CTBN) ranging between 0 and 25 wt% with an interval of 5 wt% and cured with stiochiometric amounts of 4, 4’- diamino diphenyl sulphone (DDS) cure agent. Structural changes during blending were studied by Fourier-transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopic analysis. The kinetic parameters, viz., order of decomposition reaction (n), activation energy (E), pre-exponential factor (Z) and rate decomposition constant (k), for the decomposition of the samples were calculated by applying Coats-Redfern equation over thermogravimetric (TG) data. The degradation of each sample followed second-order degradation kinetics, which was calculated by Coats-Redfern equation using best-fit analysis. This was further confirmed by linear regression analysis. The validity of data was checked by t-test statistical analysis. Further, the blend sample had higher initial degradation temperature and activation energy than its respective pure epoxy resin indicating that the CTBN acted as thermal stabilizer for epoxy resin which improved the thermal stability.     

The disposal of radioactive ferric floc

An iron hydroxide floc is used as treatment for adsorbing low amounts of actinides during nuclear fuel re-processing. This waste is cemented only after pre-treatment with Ca(OH)(2). Characterisation of all simulant material has been undertaken using XRD, TGA and SEM/EDS. The floc is a moderately alkaline colloidal slurry containing approximately 15wt% solids, with the main particulate being an amorphous hydrated iron oxide. The main phase formed during pre-treatment appears to be an X-ray amorphous hydrated calcium-ferrate phase. Embedded within this are small amounts of crystalline Ca(OH)(2), calcite, Fe(6)(OH)(12)(CO(3)), Ca(6)Fe(2)(SO(4))(3)(OH)(12).26H(2)O and Ca(3)B(2)O(6), and can form depending on concentrations of Ca(OH)(2) and time. Apart from Ca(OH)(2) and calcite, none of the crystalline phases detected during pre-treatment are detected when the floc is encapsulated in an OPC/PFA composite cement hydrated for 90 days. The main crystalline phase detected in the hardened wasteform is a solid solution hydrogarnet, Ca(3)AlFe(SiO(4))(OH)(8), known as C(3)(A,F)SH(4) in cement chemistry nomenclature.     

Chemical and biological characterization of slaughterhouse wastes compost

The chemical and biological properties of compost made from yard trimmings (YT) composted alone or mixed with slaughterhouse wastes (SHW) were evaluated in seven phases. Mixtures were weighed in a 2:1 proportion (YT:SHW) and placed in composting bins (0.91 m2). Temperature was recorded to determine the time (d) needed to reach the first (1HC) and second heat cycles (2HC). Composting characteristics were measured at 0 d, at the peak of the 1HC and 2HC, and at maturation (0, 20, 50 and 70 d). During 1HC, bacterial isolates were cultivated in both treatments and identified using the Biolog System. Chemical composition was statistically analyzed using a 2 (layers of SHW)x7 (composting phases) factorial arrangement of treatments with the ANOVA procedure of SAS. The pH was neutral for YT and ranged from 7.41 to 6.82 for SHW throughout the process. There was a decrease in organic matter (OM) and carbon (C), and a relative increase in nitrogen (N) in both treatments. At 70 d of maturation, C:N values were similar between treatments, but lower (P>0.05) than the initial values. Final N concentration was higher (P>0.05) for the treatment with SHW. Only the SHW treatment exhibited thermophilic temperatures. At the 1HC in both treatments, different populations of bacteria responsible for the breakdown of OM were identified showing an active heterogeneous population. The presence of pathogenic microorganisms was not detected in treatments containing SHW.     

废聚碳酸酯水解法制双酚A

以1,4-二氧六环为溶剂、NaOH为催化剂,采用废聚碳酸酯(PC)常压水解法制双酚A(BPA).对反应影响因素进行了研究.实验结果表明,在反应温度为100℃、反应时间为8h、m(NaOH):m(水+溶剂)=1:33、m(溶剂):m(PC)=4:1、m(水):m(PC)=1:1的最佳反应条件下,PC水解率大于98%,BPA收率大于95%.     

Recovery of zinc and lead from fly ash from ash-melting and gasification-melting processes of MSW--comparison and applicability of chemical leaching methods

Fly ash generated from MSW ash-melting and gasification-melting plants, known as Melting Furnace Fly Ash (MFA), contains considerable amounts of heavy metals such as Pb and Zn. These metals can be recovered using a smelting furnace after "pre-treatment" for removal of unnecessary elements such as Cl, Sn and Si. Chemical methods have been studied for pretreatment in the past. However, they have been discussed only with regard to treatment cost and the concentration of Pb and Zn recovered, but neither applicability to various types of MFA nor the environmental impact have been considered. In this study, acid, alkaline and ammonia/chloride leaching methods were compared from the standpoints of: (1) applicability to MFA, (2) concentration of Pb and Zn recovered, (3) treatment cost, and (4) environmental impact. Twenty-three samples of MFAs were collected and classified into 4 types based on element contents. A Pb and Zn recovery experiment was conducted for the representative MFA of those types. The results showed: (1) MFA from gasification-melting plants cannot be treated by chemical methods; (2) the other MFA can be treated to an acceptable quality by existing smelting furnaces; (3) only MFA from electric resistance ash-melting plants can be treated easily by the water washing method; and (4) alkaline and ammonia/chloride leaching methods were more effective than acid leaching.     

Depletion of chlortetracycline during composting of aged and spiked manures

Chlortetracycline (CTC) is one of the most important pharmaceuticals occurring in the environment. An increase of its application as feed supplement for livestock and poultry in the world leads to a substantial CTC contamination of manures, because most of the CTC is excreted to manure. The simulation experiment of aerobic composting was adopted to investigate CTC depletion in aged and spiked manure composting, and to address the extent of CTC depletion during composting. The results showed that the extractable CTC initial concentration was markedly different between the different manures, with 94.71mgkg(-1) in broiler manure and 879.6mgkg(-1) in hog manure. The concentration of extractable CTC decreased rapidly at the initial stage of composting, and subsequently declined slowly during aged and spiked manure composting. At the end of composting, more than 90% of CTC in the manure composting process (42 days) was depleted, except for hog manure composting with a removal of only 27%. The CTC half-lives were 11.0 days in broiler manure, 86.6 days in hog manure, 12.2 days in layer-hen manure (150.3mgkg(-1) CTC), 12.0 days in layer-hen manure (100.0mgkg(-1) CTC) and 4.39 days in layer-hen manure (53.10mgkg(-1) CTC), all according to the first order kinetics. The significance of experimental parameters in CTC depletion was assessed by the Pearson correlation approach. Microbial degradation of CTC was not effective from manure composting. CTC depletion was in good correlation with total organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, C/N, N/P and total heavy metals.     

碳酸盐对化学沉淀法回收废水中磷的影响

研究了溶液中CO_3~(2-)对磷酸铵镁(MAP)法和羟基磷酸钙(HAP)法磷回收率的影响,并对回收磷所得产物进行了傅立叶变换红外光谱和X射线衍射分析.实验结果表明:为使磷回收率达80%以上,MAP法回收磷时n(CO_3~(2-)):n(Mg~(2+))必须小于0.5,HAP法回收磷时n(CO_3~(2-)):n(Ca~(2+))必须小于0.2;溶液中的CO_3~(2-)浓度对MAP法回收产物没有明显影响,但HAP法回收磷产物中会出现大量碳酸钙.     

Effect of microbial activity on the mobility of chromium in soils

The effect of microbial activity on the chemical state of chromium, in a contaminated soil located in the Rh?ne-Alpes region (France), has been investigated. This soil contained 4,700 mg kg(-1) Cr, with about 40% present in the soluble hexavalent form. Indigenous microbial activity was found to significantly reduce Cr(VI) to the less mobile form (III) when the soil was incubated at 30 degrees C in an aqueous medium containing glucose and nutrients. A Cr(VI)-reducing strain of Streptomyces thermocarboxydus was isolated from the contaminated soil. The strain was found to metabolize Cr(VI) in a similar manner as an exogenous inoculum of Pseudomonas fluorescens LB300, and to precipitate chromium as a Cr oxyhydroxide with a gammaCrOOH-like local structure. The Cr(VI)-reducing activity of S. thermocarboxydus was induced, or significantly accelerated, by the aggregation of bacterial cells or their adhesion to suspended solid particles, and was stimulated in pure culture by glycerol and chromate.     

Vacuum pyrolysis of waste tires with basic additives

Granules of waste tires were pyrolyzed under vacuum (3.5-10kPa) conditions, and the effects of temperature and basic additives (Na(2)CO(3), NaOH) on the properties of pyrolysis were thoroughly investigated. It was obvious that with or without basic additives, pyrolysis oil yield increased gradually to a maximum and subsequently decreased with a temperature increase from 450 degrees C to 600 degrees C, irrespective of the addition of basic additives to the reactor. The addition of NaOH facilitated pyrolysis dramatically, as a maximal pyrolysis oil yield of about 48wt% was achieved at 550 degrees C without the addition of basic additives, while a maximal pyrolysis oil yield of about 50wt% was achieved at 480 degrees C by adding 3wt% (w/w, powder/waste tire granules) of NaOH powder. The composition analysis of pyrolytic naphtha (i.b.p. (initial boiling point) approximately 205 degrees C) distilled from pyrolysis oil showed that more dl-limonene was obtained with basic additives and the maximal content of dl-limonene in pyrolysis oil was 12.39wt%, which is a valuable and widely-used fine chemical. However, no improvement in pyrolysis was observed with Na(2)CO(3) addition. Pyrolysis gas was mainly composed of H(2), CO, CH(4), CO(2), C(2)H(4) and C(2)H(6). Pyrolytic char had a surface area comparable to commercial carbon black, but its proportion of ash (above 11.5wt%) was much higher.