甲型流感的流行与防控分析及其对新冠肺炎疫情的启示

目前新型冠状病毒肺炎（COVID-19）疫情在全球流行,对人类生命健康造成威胁.对甲型流感这一常见传染病进行流行特征、影响因素和防控措施分析,回顾总结全球为防控甲型流感做出的努力及相关科学研究成果,为新型冠状病毒肺炎疫情提供防控经验和研究思路.结果表明:①甲型流感呈季节性流行,受气候、社会、政治和文化等多因素影响,在低温低湿、人口密集的环境中表现出强流行性.②甲型流感防控研究工作主要包括季节性流感病毒监测、流感病毒的生态学研究、广谱中和抗体及通用疫苗的研究、应对流感大流行的病原学风险评估四方面,其中季节性流感病毒监测是制定公共卫生政策及后续研究的核心防控措施.③与甲型流感类似,新型冠状病毒肺炎疫情流行受温度等气候因素影响,同时社会、政治、文化等因素也影响其传播,亟需借鉴较成熟的甲型流感的防控经验、技术和平台.建议在加强病毒监测的同时,深入开展病毒生态学研究、病原学风险评估和药物开发,对完善疫情防控工作和预警预测未来可能出现的二次暴发及传播至关重要.研究结果将为新型冠状病毒肺炎疫情和未来传染病疫情的防控及预测预警提供参考和研究思路.      

Occurrence of Norovirus,Rotavirus, Hepatitis a Virus,and Enterovirus in Berries in Argentina

Food and Environmental Virology - Berries have been implicated as the probable vehicle of infection in multiple outbreaks of norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV). These foods often receive minimal...     

Antiviral Potential of Selected Starter Cultures,Bacteriocins and d,l-Lactic Acid

The antiviral potential of selected bacteria species [lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and micrococcaceae] was examined. By this, the effect of their cell-free supernatants as well as of certain species-related metabolites (sakacin A, nisin, and lactic acid) was investigated on different viruses after exposure at 24 °C for 3 days. Viruses were incubated with supernatants and metabolites in a dilution ratio of 1:10. Data for antiviral effects towards murine norovirus S99 (MNV), influenza A virus A/WSN/33 (H1N1), Newcastle disease virus Montana (NDV) and feline herpesvirus KS 285 (FHV) were generated in vitro simulating pH and temperature conditions according to raw sausage fermentations. Investigations showed no antiviral effect of sakacin A and nisin on MNV, H1N1, FHV and NDV. Furthermore, the antiviral potential of d,l-lactic acid was determined for MNV and H1N1. At raw sausage-related pH values (5.0–6.2) it could be shown that the virus titre for MNV and H1N1 was reduced by a maximum of 3.25 log and 2.5 log units, respectively. In addition, 29 culture supernatants of different bacteria species, mainly LAB and staphylococci, were tested for their antiviral activity against MNV. Only the cell-free supernatant of a Lb. curvatus strain showed a higher virus titre reduction of MNV by 1.25 log units compared to the control. Further studies on the characterisation of this cell-free supernatant were carried out, however, the antiviral substance could not be identified so far.     

First Occurrence of Saffold Virus in Sewage and River Water Samples in Karaj,Iran

Food and Environmental Virology - Saffold virus as a newly discovered virus, which seems to be related to acute gastroenteritis as with other enteric viruses and to human airway diseases in...     

Persistence of Hepatitis A Virus in Fresh Produce and Production Environments,and the Effect of Disinfection Procedures: A Review

Although information is limited, it is evident that prolonged persistence of infectious Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a factor in the transmission of the virus via fresh produce. Consequently, data on persistence of the virus on produce, and in environments relevant to production, such as soils, water and surfaces, are required to fully understand the dynamics of transmission of HAV via foods. Furthermore, information on effective disinfection procedures is necessary to implement effective post-harvest control measures. This review summarises current information on HAV persistence in fresh produce and on relevant disinfection procedures. On vegetables, HAV can remain infectious for several days; on frozen berries, it can persist for several months. HAV can remain infectious on surfaces for months, depending on temperature and relative humidity, and can survive desiccation. It can survive for several hours on hands. Washing hands can remove the virus, but further data are required on the appropriate procedure. Chlorination is effective in water, but not when HAV is associated with foodstuffs. Bleach and other sodium hypochlorite disinfectants at high concentrations can reduce HAV on surfaces, but are not suitable for use on fresh produce. There is only limited information on the effects of heating regimes used in the food industry on HAV. HAV is resistant to mild pasteurisation. Some food components, e.g. fats and sugars, can increase the virus’ resistance to higher temperatures. HAV is completely eliminated by boiling. Quantitative prevalence data are needed to allow the setting of appropriate disinfection log reduction targets for fresh produce.     

Quantification and Genotyping of Aichi Virus 1 in Water Samples in the Kathmandu Valley,Nepal

Aichi virus 1 genomes were detected by quantitative PCR in groundwater from shallow dug (10/22) and tube wells (1/15), river water (14/14), and sewage (1/1), with the maximum concentration of 4.0 × 10⁹ copies/l. Nucleotide sequencing analysis demonstrated the prevalence of genotype B in the virus positive samples.     

Impact of Drip Irrigation Method,Soil, and Virus Type on Tomato and Cucumber Contamination

The goal of this study was to better quantify the degree of viral contamination of tomato and cucumber in relationship to virus type, soil type, and irrigation method. Tomatoes and cucumbers were grown in ten-gallon (37.8 L) buckets filled with Pima clay loam or Brazito sandy loam soils. Plants were irrigated with secondary wastewater effluent using surface drip irrigation or subsurface drip irrigation. At specified time intervals irrigation water was seeded with bacteriophages MS-2 and P22, poliovirus type 1 (PV1), enteric adenovirus 40 (Ead 40), and hepatitis A virus. Surface drip irrigation always resulted in viral contamination of both the above and below ground parts of both crops. The roots showed the greatest level of contamination, followed by leaves and fruits. In contrast, with subsurface drip irrigation no viruses were detected in any of the above ground plant surfaces. It was found that under similar soil type and irrigation method, risk of crop contamination was similar for all of the viruses studied. It can be concluded that method of irrigation is the single most critical factor in the contamination trend of different parts of crop plants. Plant parts can be categorized into three groups (root, stem, and leaf/fruit) based on the risk of viral contamination from irrigation water.     

Internalisation of Enteric Viruses by Acanthamoeba castellanii, via Ingestion of Virus-Infected Mammalian Cells

The protozoan Acanthamoeba castellanii can inhabit various environments, including aquatic environments. After co-culture with mammalian cells which had been infected with coxsackievirus and rotavirus, virus was observed to have been internalised within the Acanthamoeba cells. No internalisation of freely-suspended virus was observed. The potential implications of virus internalisation of protozoa via infected mammalian cells, such as protection from disinfection, are discussed.     

Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and murine norovirus on surfaces of plastic,steel and raspberries using steam-ultrasound treatment

Food and Environmental Virology - The leading causes of foodborne viral disease outbreaks are human norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Their environmental persistence enables contamination of...     

Reduction of Human Enteric and Indicator Viruses at a Wastewater Treatment Plant in Southern Louisiana,USA

This study assessed wastewater quality through the quantification of four human enteric viruses and the applicability of pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) a     

Effect of Sodium Chloride,Sodium Nitrite and Sodium Nitrate on the Infectivity of Hepatitis E Virus

Food and Environmental Virology - Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection can cause acute and chronic hepatitis in humans. The zoonotic HEV genotype 3, which is highly prevalent in Europe, is mainly...     

富营养化水体中微囊藻、菌、病毒数量关系初步研究

通过测定铜绿微囊藻、菌、病毒的数量以及总磷、总氮的浓度变化,研究了富营养化水体中藻、菌、病毒之间的数量关系。结果表明:病毒和第二天的藻细胞数呈显著负相关(r=-0.655,P0.01),其显著水平高于与当天藻细胞数的相关性(r=-0.578,P0.05),菌和第二天的藻也具有显著负相关性(r=-0.500,P0.05),回归分析表明,病毒的波动能够解释51.9%的藻细胞数的变化,菌的波动能够解释46.4%的藻细胞数的变化,藻细胞数与菌数的回归方程的确定系数低于藻细胞数与病毒数的确定系数。此外,藻和总磷存在极显著负相关性(r=-0.747,P0.01),病毒和总磷之间存在极显著正相关(r=0.857,P0.01)。上述结果说明,浮游病毒和浮游细菌丰度是影响藻类数量的重要因子,且富营养化水体中的浮游病毒可以通过裂解宿主细胞而加速了磷元素的循环。     

Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses (H3N8, H5N6): In Vitro Influence of <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">d</Emphasis>,<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-Lactic Acid and Sodium Chloride on Infectivity and Virus Persistence in Short Fermented Raw Poultry Sausage

Since highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 emerged in 1997, avian influenza is considered one of the most important infectious diseases globally. In respect of virus transmission to humans, the consumption of raw poultry products remains of serious concern. In this study, data about survival time and inactivation kinetics of two low pathogenic avian influenza virus (AIV) strains (H3N8, H5N6) in short fermented raw sausage were obtained. In addition, the impact of the preserving factors d,l-lactic acid and sodium chloride on virus infectivity was evaluated through in vitro studies. Virus infectivity was confirmed in embryonated chicken eggs. Inactivation of H3N8 was seen in d,l-lactic acid solutions (0.15 and 0.20%, pH 4.40–4.70 and pH 3.80–3.91) at both temperatures (20 vs. 4°C) during 3 days of exposure. However, infectious virus particles could still be detected after exposure to 0.1% d,l-lactic acid (pH 5.80–5.99). In all NaCl solutions (2, 6 and 12% w/v), infectivity of the H3N8 strain decreased steadily but reduction of the virus titre increased significantly with higher temperature. In raw sausages, decline in virus titre was observed for both strains during ripening and storage. Thereby, decline of virus infectivity was dependent on time and temperature with a more marked effect at higher temperatures (22 vs. 7°C). At refrigeration (7°C), both viruses maintained infectivity over 14 days. Results indicate that appropriate processing of short fermented raw poultry sausage is likely to reduce risk of virus exposure due to adequate inactivation of AIV during ripening and storage.     

One-year Surveillance of Human Enteric Viruses in Raw and Treated Wastewaters,Downstream River Waters,and Drinking Waters

Human enteric viruses are a major cause of waterborne diseases, and can be transmitted by contaminated water of all kinds, including drinking and recreational water. The objectives of the present study were to assess the occurrence of enteric viruses (enterovirus, norovirus, adenovirus, hepatitis A and E virus) in raw and treated wastewaters, in rivers receiving wastewater discharges, and in drinking waters. Wastewater treatment plants’ (WWTP) pathogen removal efficiencies by adenovirus quantitative real-time PCR and the presence of infectious enterovirus, by cell culture assays, in treated wastewaters and in surface waters were also evaluated. A total of 90 water samples were collected: raw and treated wastewaters (treated effluents and ultrafiltered water reused for industrial purposes), water from two rivers receiving treated discharges, and drinking water. Nested PCR assays were used for the identification of viral DNA/RNA, followed by direct amplicon sequencing. All raw sewage samples (21/21), 61.9 % of treated wastewater samples (13/21), and 25 % of ultrafiltered water samples (3/12) were contaminated with at least one viral family. Multiple virus families and genera were frequently detected. Mean positive PCRs per sample decreased significantly from raw to treated sewage and to ultrafiltered waters. Moreover, quantitative adenovirus data showed a reduction in excess of 99 % in viral genome copies following wastewater treatment. In surface waters, 78.6 % (22/28) of samples tested positive for one or more viruses by molecular methods, but enterovirus-specific infectivity assays did not reveal infectious particles in these samples. All drinking water samples tested negative for all viruses, demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment in removing viral pathogens from drinking water. Integrated strategies to manage water from all sources are crucial to ensure water quality.     

Hepatitis A Outbreaks and Environmental Circulation of Genotype IA Strains in the São Paulo City, 2017–2018

Food and Environmental Virology - Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the major cause of enterically transmitted infectious hepatitis. Between 2016 and 2017, the number of confirmed cases of hepatitis A...     

Epidemiology of Hepatitis E in 2017 in Bavaria,Germany

Food and Environmental Virology - In the last decade, the number of reported hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in Germany, including Bavaria, has continued to rise. In order to identify risk...     

Hepatitis E Virus in Farmed Rabbits,Wild Rabbits and Petting Farm Rabbits in the Netherlands

Rabbits have been suggested as a zoonotic source of Hepatitis E virus. Phylogenetic analysis of HEV isolates from farmed, wild and pet rabbits in the Netherlands (23, 0, and 60 % respectively) showed them to be grouped amongst published rabbit HEV sequences and distinct from most human isolates. Dutch rabbits are unlikely to be a zoonotic source.     

Evaluation of a Porcine Gastric Mucin and RNase A Assay for the Discrimination of Infectious and Non-infectious GI.1 and GII.4 Norovirus Following Thermal,Ethanol, or Levulinic Acid Plus Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Treatments

Human noroviruses (NoVs) are a major source of foodborne illnesses worldwide. Since human NoVs cannot be cultured in vitro, methods that discriminate infectious from non-infectious NoVs are needed. The purpose of this study was to evaluate binding of NoV genotypes GI.1 and GII.4 to histo-blood group antigens expressed in porcine gastric mucin (PGM) as a surrogate for detecting infectious virus following thermal (99 °C/5 min), 70 % ethanol or 0.5 % levulinic acid (LV) plus 0.01 or 0.1 % sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sanitizer treatments and to determine the limit of detection of GI.1 and GII.4 binding to PGM. Treated and control virus samples were applied to 96-well plates coated with 1 µg/ml PGM followed by RNase A (5 ng/µl) treatment for degradation of exposed RNA. Average log genome copies per ml (gc/ml) reductions and relative differences (RD) in quantification cycle (Cq) values after thermal treatment were 1.77/5.62 and 1.71/7.25 (RNase A) and 1.73/5.50 and 1.56/6.58 (no RNase A) for GI.1 and GII.4, respectively. Treatment of NoVs with 70 % EtOH resulted in 0.05/0.16 (GI.1) and 3.54/10.19 (GII.4) log reductions in gc/ml and average RD in Cq value, respectively. LV (0.5 %) combined with 0.1 % SDS provided a greater decrease of GI.1 and GII.4 NoVs with 8.97 and 8.13 average RD in Cq values obtained, respectively than 0.5 % LV/0.01 % SDS. Virus recovery after PGM binding was variable with GII.4 > GI.1. PGM binding is a promising surrogate for identifying infectious and non-infectious NoVs after capsid destruction, however, results vary depending on virus strain and inactivation method.     

病毒对地下水的入侵风险与防控对策浅析

病毒可能会成为人类未来的“头号公敌”,全球地下水病毒污染事件频繁发生,因此,病毒对地下水的影响和防控逐渐受到国际重视.为进一步了解地下水病毒入侵,通过文献检索调研,分析了病毒进入含水层的途径、在地下水中迁移的限制性因素、在多孔介质中的转化过程,总结了地下水病毒入侵防控相关方法、技术、政策,探讨了风险防范意识有待加强、地下水病毒科学研究存在短板、应急防控与预警能力不足等问题及挑战.参考国内外相关研究成果和实践经验,初步提出地下水病毒入侵风险防控对策建议:①源头排查风险,防患于未然.在地下水饮用水水源地保护区及补给区,排查防疫类污染源渗漏情况,经过化学或高温消毒后再使用农村地下水饮用水、生活用水.②加强地下水饮用水水源地病毒调查研究.研究病毒在土壤及地下水中的存活能力、迁移转化机制、环境行为特征、模拟预测技术、健康风险评价方法,制定相关规范、指南.③筹划应急防控对策.做好地下水应急监测预警、饮用水消毒处理、环境质量信息公开等相关准备工作,制定地下水饮用水水源地病毒应急防控预案.