Evaluation of bactericidal efficacy of silver ions on Escherichia coli for drinking water disinfection

Purpose

The purpose of this study is the development of a suitable process for the disinfection of drinking water by evaluating bactericidal efficacy of silver ions from silver electrodes.

Methods

A prototype of a silver ioniser with silver electrodes and control unit has been fabricated. Silver ions from silver electrodes in water samples were estimated with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A fresh culture of Escherichia coli (1.75?×?10³ c.f.u./ml) was exposed to 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20?ppb of silver ions in 100?ml of autoclaved tap water for 60?min. The effect of different pH and temperatures on bactericidal efficacy was observed at constant silver ion concentration (5?ppb) and contact time of 30?min.

Results

The maximum bactericidal activity (100%) was observed at 20?ppb of silver ion concentration indicating total disinfection after 20?min while minimum bactericidal activity (25%) was observed after 10?min at 01?ppb of silver ions. Likewise, 100% bactericidal activity was noticed with 2, 5 and 10?ppb of silver ions after 60, 50 and 40?min, respectively. Bactericidal activity at pH?5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 was observed at 79.9%, 79.8%, 80.5%, 100% and 100%, respectively, whereas it was 80.4%, 88.3%, 100%, 100% and 100% at 10°C, 20°C, 30°C, 40°C and 50°C, respectively.

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that very low concentrations of silver ions at pH?8?C9 and temperature >20°C have bactericidal efficacy for total disinfection of drinking water. Silver ionisation is suitable for water disinfection and an appropriate alternative to chlorination which forms carcinogenic disinfection by-products.     

水质工程用紫外光消毒器的CFD数值模拟

紫外光消毒法是一种重要的污水深度处理方法,消毒器内部辐射强度的分布情况、微生物的停留时间及其运动轨迹对灭菌效果起着至关重要的作用。本文首次在国内系统介绍了采用计算流体动力学(CFD)手段对紫外光消毒器进行数值模拟研究的理论基础和技术路线,指出辐射强度的计算和停留时间的确定是其中的关键。以特定结构的紫外光消毒器为对象,对其内部流场进行了模拟计算,讨论了挡板位置不同所引起的消毒器内部速度场的变化情况;应用离散坐标辐射模型(DO)对紫外光辐射强度分布进行了模拟,同时加入离散粒子模型(DPM)来模拟消毒器内微生物的停留时长和运动轨迹,为最终计算微生物所受紫外光辐射剂量奠定了坚实的基础。     

自来水二氧化氯消毒控制三氯甲烷研究

对自来水二氧化氯消毒控制三氯甲烷形成进行了试验研究 ,二氧化氯预消毒替代预氯化消毒可以降低水中的三氯甲烷 ,预消毒处理后形成三氯甲烷的反应受温度和反应时间的影响。使用二氧化氯与氯配制的混合消毒剂消毒时 ,随二氧化氯含量增加 ,水中的三氯甲烷将明显减少。     

臭氧对饮用水中氯化消毒副产物生成的影响

以北京市某水厂砂滤池出水为实验原水,研究了臭氧曝气时间对实验原水中天然有机物（NOM）性质、结构及氯化消毒副产物生成的影响。通过高效凝胶色谱、三维荧光光谱、红外光谱等检测分析方法对水中NOM进行表征后发现,经臭氧作用后水样DOC浓度升高、亲水性增加、芳香性及重均分子量下降。有机物中羟基、碳碳双键或碳氮双键及其共轭体系、脱质子羧基官能团与氯反应活性较强。综合考虑臭氧作用后NOM性质、结构变化及氯化消毒副产物生成量的改变,选择最佳臭氧接触时间为12 min。     

水质对紫外消毒在两种典型再生水中应用的影响

以大肠杆菌为对象,研究了再生水水质变化对紫外消毒效果和光复活的影响。结果表明,紫外对大肠杆菌有很强的灭活作用,在紫外剂量为4mJ／cm^2时,大肠杆菌的灭活率达到了4．41个对数级。腐殖酸、铁和2种再生水水体中其他溶解性物质会影响光吸收和紫外透射率,但对紫外消毒动力学无影响。在颗粒物浓度为0～200mg／L的范围内,外源高岭土和活性污泥等颗粒物的投加对紫外消毒效果影响较小,而再生水水样W1中原有的2．61／1：g／L的颗粒物则会极大地影响消毒效果,使UV对细菌的灭活出现明显的拖尾现象。腐殖酸会增强紫外损伤大肠杆菌的光复活能力,但2种再生水中细菌的光复活能力相对磷酸盐缓冲溶液（PBS）中减弱,减弱程度在不同水样中有所不同。     

Cu2O光催化降解水中对硝基苯酚的研究

用CuCl水解法制备Cu2O粉末,用透射电镜(TEM)和X衍射(XRD)对Cu2O粒子进行了表征.在仿太阳光源的照射下,研究了Cu2O对水中难降解有机污染物对硝基苯酚的光催化降解效果.结果表明,在8 h内,对硝基苯酚几乎完全降解.在催化剂用量为0.2 g时,对浓度为22.4 mg/L的200mL对硝基苯酚溶液有良好的降解效果.降解反应符合一级反应动力学.     

Solar CPC pilot plant photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol A in waters and wastewaters using suspended and supported-TiO2. Influence of photogenerated species

Photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol A (BPA) in waters and wastewaters in the presence of titanium dioxide (TiO₂) was performed under different conditions. Suspensions of the TiO₂ were used to compare the degradation efficiency of BPA (20 mg L^?1) in batch and compound parabolic collector (CPC) reactors. A TiO₂ catalyst supported on glass spheres was prepared (sol–gel method) and used in a CPC solar pilot plant for the photodegradation of BPA (100 μg L^?1). The influence of OH·, O₂ ^·?, and h ⁺ on the BPA degradation were evaluated. The radicals OH· and O₂ ^·? were proved to be the main species involved on BPA photodegradation. Total organic carbon (TOC) and carboxylic acids were determined to evaluate the BPA mineralization during the photodegradation process. Some toxicological effects of BPA and its photoproducts on Eisenia andrei earthworms were evaluated. The results show that the optimal concentration of suspended TiO₂ to degrade BPA in batch or CPC reactors was 0.1 g L^?1. According to biological tests, the BPA LC₅₀ in 24 h for E. andrei was of 1.7?×?10^?2 mg cm^?2. The photocatalytic degradation of BPA mediated by TiO₂ supported on glass spheres suffered strong influence of the water matrix. On real municipal wastewater treatment plant (MWWTP) secondary effluent, 30 % of BPA remains in solution; nevertheless, the method has the enormous advantage since it eliminates the need of catalyst removal step, reducing the cost of treatment.     

光催化降解水体异味物质2-MIB的机理

以水体异味物质2-甲基异莰醇(2-methylisoborneol,2-MIB)为研究对象,在紫外光(λ<380 nm)照射下,探讨TiO2(P25)对2-MIB的光催化降解特性及光化学作用机理。结果表明,UV/TiO2光催化体系可以有效去除水体异味物质2-MIB,紫外光照射60 min,对2-MIB的降解率达95%。同时研究了光催化降解体系介质pH,共存腐殖酸(HA)和过硫酸钾(K2S2O8)对UV/TiO2光催化体系降解2-MIB的影响,发现低浓度HA([HA]≤0.5 mg/L)可以提高2-MIB降解速率,当HA浓度高于0.5 mg/L,2-MIB降解反应受到抑制;同时当加入电子受体K2S2O8后,降解体系中活性物种羟基自由基(.OH)明显增加,提高了TiO2对2-MIB的降解能力。利用苯甲酸荧光光度法和POD-DPD显色法跟踪测定降解过程中羟基自由基(·OH)和过氧化氢(H2O2)的变化,表明光催化反应涉及·OH机理。     

Removal of propham from water by using electro-Fenton technology: kinetics and mechanism

The removal of a carbamate herbicide, propham, from aqueous solution has been carried out by the electro-Fenton process. Hydroxyl radical, a strong oxidizing agent, was generated catalytically and used for the oxidation of propham aqueous solutions. The degradation kinetics of propham evidenced a pseudo-first order degradation. The absolute rate constant of second order reaction kinetics between propham and ()OH was determined as (2.2+/-0.10)x10(9)m(-1)s(-1). The mineralization of propham was followed by the organic carbon (TOC) removal. The optimal Fe(3+) concentration was found as 0.5mM at 300mA. The 94% of initial TOC of 0.25mM propham solution was removed in 8h at the optimal conditions by using the cathode area to solution volume ratio of 3.33dm(-1). The maximum mineralization current efficiency values were obtained at 60mA in the presence of 0.5mM Fe(3+). During the electro-Fenton treatment, several degradation products were formed. These intermediates were identified by using high performance liquid chromatography, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and ion chromatography analysis. The identified by-products allowed proposing a pathway for the propham mineralization.     

Combined biological and photocatalytic treatment for the mineralization of phenol in water

Phenol is degraded by biological treatment, however mineralization requires long time. To decrease the time and operational cost necessary for the mineralization of phenol, an optimum operation condition of the combined biological–photocatalytical treatment was investigated. The mineralization of phenol (50 mg l⁻¹) was conducted in a flow-type biomembrane tank combined with a batch-type TiO₂-suspended photocatalytic reactor. Phenol was degraded biologically to the concentration of 6.8 mg l⁻¹, an effective concentration for further photocatalytic treatment. After the biological treatment, the biotreated phenol was treated photocatalytically to complete the mineralization of phenol. The combined treatment shortened the mineralization time compared to the biological treatment and electric cost compared to the photocatalytic treatment only. The combined treatment may be suitable for a short-time mineralization of phenol in wastewater.     

Predictive model for disinfection by-product in Alexandria drinking water, northern west of Egypt

Chlorine has been utilized in the early stages of water treatment processes as disinfectant. Disinfection for drinking water reduces the risk of pathogenic infection but may pose a chemical threat to human health due to disinfection residues and their by-products (DBP) when the organic and inorganic precursors are present in water. In the last two decades, many modeling attempts have been made to predict the occurrence of DBP in drinking water. Models have been developed based on data generated in laboratory-scale and field-scale investigations. The objective of this paper is to develop a predictive model for DBP formation in the Alexandria governorate located at the northern west of Egypt based on field-scale investigations as well as laboratory-controlled experimentations. The present study showed that the correlation coefficient between trihalomethanes (THM) predicted and THM measured was R ²?=?0.88 and the minimum deviation percentage between THM predicted and THM measured was 0.8 %, the maximum deviation percentage was 89.3 %, and the average deviation was 17.8 %, while the correlation coefficient between dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) predicted and DCAA measured was R ²?=?0.98 and the minimum deviation percentage between DCAA predicted and DCAA measured was 1.3 %, the maximum deviation percentage was 47.2 %, and the average deviation was 16.6 %. In addition, the correlation coefficient between trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) predicted and TCAA measured was R ²?=?0.98 and the minimum deviation percentage between TCAA predicted and TCAA measured was 4.9 %, the maximum deviation percentage was 43.0 %, and the average deviation was 16.0 %.     

Influence of soluble microbial products (SMP) on wastewater disinfection byproducts: trihalomethanes and haloacetic acid species from the chlorination of SMP

Introduction  

Effluent organic matter from biological wastewater treatment plants is composed of degradation products and soluble microbial products (SMP). Protein, polysaccharide, humic acid, and DNA were major biomolecules of SMP. Little is known about the effects of SMP as microbially derived precursors on disinfection byproduct formation and speciation in biologically treated wastewater. In addition, there has never been any attempt to directly chlorinate the major biomolecules of SMP.     

Model reactor for photocatalytic degradation of persistent chemicals in ponds and waste water

A laboratory scale flow-through model reactor for the degradation of persistent chemicals using titanium dioxide (TiO₂) as photocatalyst immobilized on glass beads is presented. In the test system with a volume of 18 L contaminated water is pumped to the upper part of the floating reactor and flows over the coated beads which are exposed to UV-radiation. The degradation of two dyes of different persistance was investigated. Primary degradation of methylene blue did not fit a first order kinetic due to coincident adsorption onto the photocatalyst and direct photolysis, resulting in a half-life of 6 h. A filtrate of a green algae suspension accelerated the colour removal. In contrast, reactive red 2 was degraded only by photocatalysis; neither adsorption nor direct photolysis led to a colour removal. The course of primary degradation followed a first order kinetic with a half-life of 18 h and a rate constant of 0.04 h⁻¹. Analysis of the degradation products indicated mineralization by detection of NO₂⁻ and NO₃⁻, accompanied by a decrease of pH and an increase of conductivity. A successful adaptation of the model reactor (scale 1:10) to dimensions required for surface waters and waste water treatment plants would be a costefficient and environmentally sustainable application of photocatalysis for the treatment of industrially polluted water and could be of relevance for third world contries, particularly those favoured by high solar radiation.     

Three-dimensional diffusion of non-sorbing species in porous sandstone: computer simulation based on X-ray microtomography using synchrotron radiation

The diffusion pathways of porous sandstone were examined by a three-dimensional (3-D) imaging technique based on X-ray computed tomography (CT) using the SPring-8 (Super Photon ring-8 GeV, Hyogo, Japan) synchrotron radiation facility. The analysis was undertaken to develop better understanding of the diffusion pathways in natural rock as a key factor in clarifying the detailed mechanism of the diffusion of radionuclides and water molecules through the pore spaces of natural barriers in underground nuclear waste disposal facilities. A cylindrical sample (diameter 4 mm, length 6 mm) of sandstone (porosity 0.14) was imaged to obtain a 3-D image set of 450(3) voxels=2.62(3) mm(3). Through cluster-labeling analysis of the 3-D image set, it was revealed that 89% of the pore space forms a single large pore-cluster responsible for macroscopic diffusive transport, while only 11% of the pore space is made up of isolated pores that are not involved in long-range diffusive transport. Computer simulations of the 3-D diffusion of non-sorbing random walkers in the largest pore cluster were performed to calculate the surface-to-volume ratio of the pore, tortuosity (diffusion coefficient in free space divided by that in porous rock). The results showed that (i) the simulated surface-to-volume ratio is about 60% of the results obtained by conventional pulsed-field-gradient proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) laboratory experiments and (ii) the simulated tortuosity is five to seven times larger than the results of laboratory diffusion experiments using non-sorbing I(-) and Br(-). These discrepancies are probably attributed to the intrinsic sample heterogeneity and limited spatial resolution of the CT system. The permeability was also estimated based on the NMR diffusometry theory using the results of the random walk simulations via the Kozeny-Carman equation. The estimated permeability involved an error of about 20% compared with the permeability measured by the conventional method, suggesting that the diffusometry-based NMR well logging with gradient coils is applicable to the in-situ permeability measurement of strata. The present study demonstrated that X-ray CT using synchrotron radiation is a powerful tool for obtaining 3-D pore structure images without the beam-hardening artifacts inevitable in conventional CT using X-ray tubes.     

Decrease of time for pathogen inactivation in alkaline disinfection systems using pressure.

From field studies conducted by Tulane University (New Orleans, Louisiana), efficiency of advanced alkaline disinfection in closed systems was found to depend on ammonia concentration, pH, exposure time, temperature, total solids content, pretreatment storage time, and mixing effectiveness. In this study of a closed alkaline system, an additional pathogen stressor pressure was tested. The effect of the alkaline dosing has been assessed for dewatered raw and aerobically and anaerobically digested municipal sludge cake that produce un-ionized ammonia at concentrations of 0.05 to 2% on a dry-weight basis. Inactivation of Ascaris suum eggs increased from 50 to 99% as the temperature was increased from 40 to 55 degrees C, thus achieving Class A levels. The systems studied were compared with an alkaline process operated under open conditions, which limited the concentrations of ammonia available because of Henry's Law. Under a closed pressurized system, the effect of un-ionized ammonia was greatly increased, and the resulting time required for inactivation was reduced from hours or days to minutes. In the next few years, it is expected that alkaline disinfection of biosolids will be optimized in relation to the factors stated above, at much lower doses of the alkaline agents. The closed-system alkaline processes that will be developed will be more energy-efficient, cost-effective, and have full control of potential odorous emissions.     

Photodecomposition of humic acid and natural organic matter in swamp water using a TiO2-coated ceramic foam filter: Potential for the formation of disinfection byproducts

This paper reports on the photodecomposition of aqueous humic acid (HA) by a TiO₂-coated ceramic foam filter (TCF) reactor and on the potential for the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) upon chlorination of the photocatalytically treated solutions. This photocatalytic reactor can also be applied to the removal of natural organic matter (NOM) in swamp waters. The proposed photocatalytic reaction system was operated as per standardized methodologies. First, the ability of the TCF to decompose HA (a representative compound of NOM) was evaluated from the changes in the total organic carbon (TOC) and UV₂₅₄ with the reaction time. Remarkably, TOC removal and UV₂₅₄ values ranging from 44% to 61% and from 60% to 83%, respectively, were achieved. The potential for the formation of DBPs (total trihalomethane and total haloacetic acid) by chlorination of the phototreated solution was strongly dependent on the TOC removal and UV₂₅₄ values in the solution. The degree of photodecomposition of NOMs in the swamp water samples and the DBP formation potential showed similar trends as in the case of the standard solutions containing HA. The method used in this study could be effectively used to evaluate the efficiency of TCF for reducing HA and NOM, while suppressing the formation of DBP products.     

Performance of photocatalytic reactors using immobilized TiO2 film for the degradation of phenol and methylene blue dye present in water stream

TiO2 thin film photocatalyst was successfully synthesized and immobilized on glass reactor tube using sol-gel method. The synthesized TiO2 coating was transparent, which enabled the penetration of ultra-violet (UV) light to the catalyst surface. Two photocatalytic reactors with different operating modes were tested: (a) tubular photocatalytic reactor with re-circulation mode and (b) batch photocatalytic reactor. A new proposed TiO2 synthesized film formulation of 1 titanium isopropoxide: 8 isopropanol: 3 acetyl acetone: 1.1 H2O: 0.05 acetic acid (in molar ratio) gave excellent photocatalytic activity for degradation of phenol and methylene blue dye present in the water. The half-life time, t1/2 of photocatalytic degradation of phenol was 56 min at the initial phenol concentration of 1000 microM in the batch reactor. In the tubular photocatalytic reactor, 5 re-circulation passes with residence time of 2.2 min (single pass) degraded 50% of 40-microM methylene blue dye. Initial phenol concentration, presence of hydrogen peroxide, presence of air bubbling and stirring speed as the process variables were studied in the batch reactor. Initial methylene blue concentration, pH value, light intensity and reaction temperature were studied as the process variables in the tubular reactor. The synthesized TiO2 thin film was characterized using SEM, XRD and EDX analysis. A comparative performance between the synthesized TiO2 thin film and commercial TiO2 particles (99% anatase) was evaluated under the same experimental conditions. The TiO2 film was equally active as the TiO2 powder catalyst.     

Hydraulic performance of a proposed in situ photocatalytic reactor for degradation of MTBE in water

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) groundwater remediation projects often require a combination of technologies resulting in increasing the project costs. A cost-effective in situ photocatalytic reactor design, Honeycomb II, is proposed and tested for its efficiency in MTBE degradation at various flows. This study is an intermediate phase of the research in developing an in situ photocatalytic reactor for groundwater remediation. It examines the effect of the operating variables: air and water flow and double passages through Honeycomb II, on the MTBE removal. MTBE vaporisation is affected by not only temperature, Henry’s law constant and air flow to volume ratio but also reactor geometry. The column reactor achieved more than 84% MTBE removal after 8 h at flows equivalent to horizontal groundwater velocities slower than 21.2 cm d⁻¹. Despite the contrasting properties between a photocatalytic indicator methylene blue and MTBE, the reactor efficiency in degrading both compounds showed similar responses towards flow (equivalent groundwater velocity and hydraulic residence time (HRT)). The critical HRT for both compounds was approximately 1 d, which corresponded to a velocity of 21.2 cm d⁻¹. A double pass through both new and used catalysts achieved more than 95% MTBE removal after two passes in 48 h. It also verified that the removal efficiency can be estimated via the sequential order of the removal efficiency of one pass obtained in the laboratory. This study reinforces the potential of this reactor design for in situ groundwater remediation.     

BiOBr掺杂TiO2纳米管阵列光催化降解水中微量双酚A的性能及机理

针对光催化降解水中微量双酚A存在的可见光利用率低、载流子复合效率高和催化剂回收难等问题,本研究采用阳极氧化法和循环浸渍法在钛片上原位制备了BiOBr/TiO₂纳米管阵列(BiOBr/TNTAs)复合光催化剂,使用SEM、XRD和XPS等分析方法对催化剂的形貌和结构进行了表征。结果表明,片层状的BiOBr均匀负载在TNTAs表面,形成了稳定的异质结结构。BiOBr/TNTAs在可见光下对水中微量双酚A的去除率和矿化率明显高于TNTAs,且表现出优异的光催化稳定性。水体中共存的各种阴离子和腐殖酸等会通过竞争活性位点或作为自由基清除剂影响双酚A的去除效果。自由基淬灭结果表明,·OH和h⁺是BiOBr/TNTAs光催化降解双酚A的主要活性物种。光催化活性增强主要归因于BiOBr和TNTAs间p-n异质结的形成,可有效拓展TNTAs的光谱响应范围,从而提高光生电子-空穴的分离效率。     

TiO2光催化处理水中苯酚的环境风险研究

利用薄膜水循环TiO2光催化反应器(TiO2-WFCPR)处理水中苯酚的实验数据,分析了不同处理条件下苯酚光催化降解过程中间产物的降解规律和出水的环境风险.研究结果表明,即使苯酚已达<污水综合排放标准>(GB 8978-1996)一级排放标准,但出水中还不同程度地存在有害的中间产物,排放时会对环境造成危害,因此应以残留苯酚及其中间产物的浓度及影响确定该工艺最终的反应时间.足够的反应时间和偏碱性条件是降低苯酚及其中间产物环境风险的关键因素.苯酚初始浓度及进水pH越高,苯酚达标的反应时间会越长,处理的经济性就越差.所以,从环境风险与经济性综合考虑,该工艺适用于处理苯酚初始质量浓度≤60.00 mg/L的水,适宜的pH为6.0～8.0.