Minimum ignition temperatures and explosion characteristics of micron-sized aluminium powder

To forestall, control, and mitigate the detrimental effects of aluminium dust, a 20-L near-spherical dust explosion experimental system and an HY16429 type dust-cloud ignition temperature test device were employed to explore the explosion characteristics of micron-sized aluminium powder under different ignition energies, dust particle sizes, and dust cloud concentration (C_dust) values; the minimum ignition temperature (MIT) values of aluminium powder under different dust particle sizes and C_dust were also examined. Flame images at different times were photographed by a high-speed camera. Results revealed that under similar dust-cloud concentrations and with dust particle size increasing from 42.89 to 141.70 μm, the MIT of aluminium powder increased. Under various C_dust values, the MIT of aluminium dust clouds attained peak value when concentrations enhanced. Furthermore, the increase of ignition energy contributed to the increase of the explosion pressure (P_ex) and the rate of explosion pressure rise [(dP/dt)_ex]. When dust particle size was augmented gradually, the P_ex and (dP/dt)_ex attenuated. Decreasing particle size lowered both the most violent explosion concentration and explosive limits.     

Minimum Ignition Temperature of layer and cloud dust mixtures

The prevention of dust explosions is still a challenge for the process industry. Ignition, in particular, is a phenomenon that is still not completely understood. As a consequence, safety conditions pertaining to ignition suppression are rarely identified to an adequate level. It is well known that, in general, the ignition attitude of a dust depends on several factors, such as the nature of the chemical, the particle size, moisture content, etc., but there is still a lack of knowledge on the effect of the single variables.This paper has the aim of providing data on the Minimum Ignition Temperatures of dust mixtures obtained from a mixing of a combustible dust (flour, lactose, sucrose, sulphur) and an inert dust (limestone, extinguishing powders) as well as from the mixing of two different combustible dusts. Various mixtures with different weight ratios have been tested in a Godbert Greenwald (GG) furnace and on a hot plate in order to measure the effect of mixture composition on the Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT_L) of the layer and on the Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT_C) of the cloud. In order to further verify the effects of inert dust particle size, inerts sieved to different size ranges have been tested separately. Generally, both MIT_L and MIT_C increase as the inert content is increased. MIT_C is poorly affected by inert particle size when limestone is used. The MIT_L of pure flour is higher than the MIT_L of mixtures containing up to 40% of 32–75 μm of limestone. This was probably due to the behaviour of pure flour during the test, which demonstrated strong tendency to produce char, cracks in the layer and detachment from the hot plate.     

Influence of the oxide content on the ignition energies of aluminium powders

Some results of determination of ignition energies for an aluminium powder with various oxide contents are presented. Common use of processes like high-speed cutting produce explosive dust clouds, so that we focused this study on hazard of metallic powders. An industrial aluminium powder has been used for this work. An original process, based on the principle of electrochemical anodisation, has been developed to increase, under control, the oxide coating of particles.

The sensitivity study to spark ignition was performed in an Hartmann explosion tube of 1.3L. The Langlie test method was applied to evaluate the energies leading to a probability of ignition of 50% (E₅₀) of the selected samples. The results confirm that the ignition energies increase with the oxide content of the powder.     

Incendiary characteristics of electrostatic discharge for dust and gas explosion

Paying attention to the ignition potentiality of static electricity, the relation between the discharge characteristics and the ignition of a dust cloud and the gas produced was studied, applying an electrical power supply of which the electrical circuit is adjustable. The effect of ignition characteristics on dust and gas explosions was investigated. The results of the study indicate that the probability of an explosion is influenced by the minimum ignition energy, spark duration time, feeding rate of ignition energy, circuit capacitance, ignition voltage, etc.     

Differences and similarities of gas and dust explosions: A critical evaluation of the European ‘ATEX’ directives in relation to dusts

Explosive gas mixtures and explosive dust clouds, once existing, exhibit similar ignition and combustion features. However, there are two basic differences between dusts and gases which are of substantially greater significance in design of safety standards than these similarities. Firstly, the physics of generation and up-keeping of dust clouds and premixed gas/vapour clouds are substantially different. This means that in most situations where accidental explosive gas clouds may be produced quite readily, generation of explosive dust clouds would be highly unlikely. Secondly, contrary to premixed gas flame propagation, the propagation of flames in dust/air mixtures is not limited only to the flammable dust concentration range of dynamic clouds. The state of stagnant layers/deposits offers an additional discrete possibility of flame propagation.

The two European Directives 94/9/EC (1994) and 1999/92/EC (1999) primarily address gases/vapours, whereas the particular properties of dusts are not addressed adequately. Some recent IEC and European dust standards resulting from this deficiency are discussed, and the need for revising the two directives accordingly is emphasized.     

Explosion characteristics of micron- and nano-size magnesium powders

Explosion characteristics of micron- and nano-size magnesium powders were determined using CSIR-CBRI 20-L Sphere, Hartmann apparatus and Godbert-Greenwald furnace to study influence of particle size reduction to nano-range on these. The explosion parameters investigated are: maximum explosion pressure (P_max), maximum rate of pressure-rise (dP/dt)_max, dust explosibility index (K_St), minimum explosible concentration (MEC), minimum ignition energy (MIE), minimum ignition temperature (MIT), limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) and effect of reduced oxygen level on explosion severity. Magnesium particle sizes are: 125, 74, 38, 22, 10 and 1 μm; and 400, 200, 150, 100, 50 and 30 nm. Experimental results indicate significant increase in explosion severity (P_max: 7–14 bar, K_St: 98–510 bar·m/s) as particle size decreases from 125 to 1 μm, it is maximum for 400 nm (P_max: 14.6 bar, K_St: 528 bar·m/s) and decreases with further decrease of particle size to nano-range 200–30 nm (P_max: 12.4–9.4 bar, K_St: 460–262 bar·m/s) as it is affected by agglomeration of nano-particles. MEC decreases from 160 to 30 g/m³ on decreasing particle size from 125 to 1 μm, its value is 30 g/m³ for 400 and 200 nm and 20 g/m³ for further decrease in nano-range (150–30 nm). MIE reduces from 120 to 2 mJ on decreasing the particle size from 125 to 1 μm, its value is 1 mJ for 400, 200, 150 nm size and <1 mJ for 50 and 30 nm. Minimum ignition temperature is 600 °C for 125 μm magnesium, it varies between 570 and 450 °C for sizes 38–1 μm and 400–350 °C for size range 400–30 nm. Magnesium powders in nano-range (30–200 nm) explode less violently than micron-range powder. However, likelihood of explosion increases significantly for nano-range magnesium. LOC is 5% for magnesium size range 125–38 μm, 4% for 22–1 μm, 3% for 400 nm, 4% for 200, 150 and 100 nm, and 5% for 50 and 30 nm. Reduction in oxygen levels to 9% results in decrease in P_max and K_St by a factor of 2–3 and 4–5, respectively, for micron as well as nano-sizes. The experimental data presented will be useful for industries producing or handling similar size range micron- and nano-magnesium in order to evaluate explosibility of their magnesium powders and propose/design adequate safety measures.     

Effect of pyrolysis and oxidation characteristics on lauric acid and stearic acid dust explosion hazards

The effect of pyrolysis and oxidation characteristics on the explosion sensitivity and severity parameters, including the minimum ignition energy MIE, minimum ignition temperature MIT, minimum explosion concentration MEC, maximum explosion pressure P_max, maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)_max and deflagration index K_st, of lauric acid and stearic acid dust clouds was experimentally investigated. A synchronous thermal analyser was used to test the particle thermal characteristics. The functional test apparatuses including the 1.2 L Hartmann-tube apparatus, modified Godbert-Greenwald furnace, and 20 L explosion apparatus were used to test the explosion parameters. The results indicated that the rapid and slow weight loss processes of lauric acid dust followed a one-dimensional diffusion model (D1 model) and a 1.5 order chemical reaction model (F1.5 model), respectively. In addition, the rapid and slow weight loss processes of stearic acid followed a 1.5 order chemical reaction model (F1.5 model) and a three-dimensional diffusion model (D3 model), respectively, and the corresponding average apparent activation energy E and pre-exponential factor A were larger than those of lauric acid. The stearic acid dust explosion had higher values of MIE and MIT, which were mainly dependent on the higher pyrolysis and oxidation temperatures and the larger apparent activation energy E determining the slower rate of chemical bond breakage during pyrolysis and oxidation. In contrast, the lauric acid dust explosion had a higher MEC related to a smaller pre-exponential factor A with a lower amount of released reaction heat and a lower heat release rate during pyrolysis and oxidation. Additionally, due to the competition regime of the higher oxidation reaction heat release and greater consumption of oxygen during explosion, the explosion pressure P_m of the stearic acid dust was larger in low concentration ranges and decayed to an even smaller pressure than with lauric acid when the concentration exceeded 500 g/m³. The rate of explosion pressure rise (dP/dt)_m of the stearic acid dust was always larger in the experimental concentration range. The stearic acid dust explosion possessed a higher P_max, (dP/dt)_max and K_st mainly because of a larger pre-exponential factor A related to more active sites participating in the pyrolysis and oxidation reaction. Consequently, the active chemical reaction occurred more violently, and the temperature and overpressure rose faster, indicating a higher explosion hazard class for stearic acid dust.     

Experimental study of the venting characteristics of dust explosion through a vent duct

To further understand the dynamic mechanism of dust explosion through a vent duct, we designed a small-scale cylindrical vessel connected with a vent duct and performed a dust explosion venting experiment under different opening pressures using corn starch as the explosive medium in this study. The results show that weakening effect of duct on venting is positively correlated with the opening pressure. The explosion pressure in the duct presents a three-peak-structure with time, successively caused by the membrane breaking shock wave, the secondary explosion in the tube, and the continuous combustion, and decreases gradually with the propagation distance. Meanwhile, the three pressure peaks are positively correlated with the opening pressure, while the time interval between them goes to contrary. The increase of opening pressure leads to the increase of secondary explosion intensity and reverse flow in the vessel, further accelerates the reaction rate in the vessel, and then shortens the duration of combustion in the vessel until the phenomenon of flame reignition in the vessel disappears.     

On the explosion and flammability behavior of mixtures of combustible dusts

In the work presented in this paper, the explosion and flammability behavior of combustible dust mixtures was studied. Lycopodium, Nicotinic acid and Ascorbic acid were used as sample dusts.In the case of mixtures of two dusts, the minimum explosive concentration is reproduced well by a Le Chatelier's rule-like formula, whereas the minimum ignition energy is a linear combination of the ignition energies of the pure dusts.An unexpected behavior has been found in relation to the explosion behavior and the reactivity. When mixing Lycopodium and Nicotinic acid or Ascorbic acid, the rate of pressure rise of the mixture is much higher than the rate of pressure rise obtained by linearly averaging the values of the pure dusts (according to their weight proportions), thus suggesting that strong synergistic effects arise; but it is comparable to that of the most reactive dust in the mixture.The observed behavior seems to be linked to the presence of minerals in the Lycopodium particles which catalyze oxidation reactions of Nicotinic acid and Ascorbic acid, as suggested by TG analysis.In the case of mixtures of three dusts, a similar behavior is observed when the concentration of Lycopodium is twice that of the other two dusts.     

Effects of ignition energy on fire and explosion characteristics of dilute hybrid fuel in ventilation air methane

Deflagration explosions of coal dust clouds and flammable gases are a major safety concern in coal mining industry. Accidental fire and explosion caused by coal dust cloud can impose substantial losses and damages to people and properties in underground coal mines. Hybrid mixtures of methane and coal dust have the potential to reduce the minimum activation energy of a combustion reaction. In this study the Minimum Explosion Concentration (MEC), Over Pressure Rise (OPR), deflagration index for gas and dust hybrid mixtures (K_st) and explosive region of hybrid fuel mixtures present in Ventilation Air Methane (VAM) were investigated. Experiments were carried out according to the ASTM E1226-12 guideline utilising a 20 L spherical shape apparatus specifically designed for this purpose.Resultsobtained from this study have shown that the presence of methane significantly affects explosion characteristics of coal dust clouds. Dilute concentrations of methane, 0.75–1.25%, resulted in coal dust clouds OPR increasing from 0.3 bar to 2.2 bar and boosting the K_st value from 10 bar m s⁻¹ to 25 bar m s⁻¹. The explosion characteristics were also affected by the ignitors’ energy; for instance, for a coal dust cloud concentration of 50 g m⁻³ the OPR recorded was 0.09 bar when a 1 kJ chemical ignitor was used, while, 0.75 bar (OPR) was recorded when a 10 kJ chemical ignitor was used.For the first time, new explosion regions were identified for diluted methane-coal dust cloud mixtures when using 1, 5 and 10 kJ ignitors. Finally, the Le-Chatelier mixing rule was modified to predict the lower explosion limit of methane-coal dust cloud hybrid mixtures considering the energy of the ignitors.     

Numerical study on premixing characteristics and explosion process of starch in a vertical pipe under turbulent flow

Fire and explosion accidents are frequently caused by combustible dust, which has led to increased interest in this area of research. Although scholars have performed some research in this field, they often ignored interesting phenomena in their experiments. In this paper, we established a 2D numerical method to thoroughly investigate the particle motion and distribution before ignition. The optimal time for the corn starch dust cloud to ignite was determined in a semi-closed tube, and the characteristics of the flame propagation and temperature field were investigated after ignition inside and outside the tube. From the simulation, certain unexpected phenomena that occurred in the experiment were explained, and some suggestions were proposed for future experiments. The results from the simulation showed that 60–70 ms was the best time for the dust cloud to ignite. The local high-temperature flame clusters were caused by the agglomeration of high-temperature particles, and there were no flames near the wall of the tube due to particles gathering and attaching to the wall. Vortices formed around the nozzle, where the particle concentration was low and the flame spread slowly. During the explosion venting, particles flew out of the tube before the flame. The venting flame exhibited a “mushroom cloud” shape due to interactions with the vortex, and the flame maintained this shape as it was driven upward by the vortex.     

Measuring the violence of dust explosions with the “20 l sphere” and with the standard “ISO 1 m vessel”: Systematic comparison and analysis of the discrepancies

On the basis of a systematic testwork with a number of different dusts, the explosion indices as determined within the 20 l sphere and with the ISO-VDI 1 m³ vessel have been compared. The repeatability has been assessed and since some systematic deviations appear a refined physical analysis of the explosion processes is developed. It appears in particular that the cube root law supposed to link both vessels is not verified. A striking illustration of this appears when a dust with a significant explosion severity inside the 20 l sphere is not even explosible in the larger vessel. It is strongly suggested that the ignition energy is forcing very significantly the explosion in the smaller vessel inducing several tens of Celsius degrees of preheating. It is shown also that the inner level of turbulence is decreasing very fast in the 20 l sphere during the flame development so that difficult-to-ignite mixtures would tend to burn at a lower combustion rate. It is further demonstrated that the major bias between the chambers can be explained and quantified with these elements. A correlation with the standard 1 m³ vessel and a grid of interpretation of the data is proposed.     

An investigation on the dust explosion of micron and nano scale aluminium particles

A series of dust explosion were conducted to compare the flame structure between nano and micron aluminium dusts. Two-color pyrometer technique is applied to have qualitative observation of flame development. Measurement of temperature indicates that explosion in micron aluminium dust clouds start in a single spot at 3000 K, in contrast, explosion in nano aluminium dust clouds start when hot powder accumulated to a certain amount at lower temperature of 2600 K. For micron aluminium dust clouds, flame at leading edge has the highest temperature and propagates in all directions. On the other hand, flame in nano aluminium dust clouds propagate only upward with the hottest part left behind at the downside. As flame propagates, the temperature at top edge gradually decreases from 2600 K to finally 2000 K, but temperature at bottom edge maintains in 3000 K with no significant displacement. The unevenness of flame structure is considered as the consequence of different particle densities, which suggests that the reaction of nano aluminium particles stays in molten state, meanwhile, the high surface area also leads to unignorable heat loss.     

Experimental study on inert products,moisture, and particle size effect on the minimum ignition energy of combustible dusts

Handling combustible dusts not only continues to pose a risk to industry but can also affect the safety of society. Explosion risk could be avoided or mitigated trying to guarantee inherent safety throughout the product life chain. One way to reduce the risks when dealing with combustible dust is to increase the Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) in order to decrease combustible dust ignition sensitivity. To achieve this decrease, the inertization technique, also known as moderation, will be used. It consists of adding inert powders or humidity to the combustible dust. As sometimes end-users also must deal with the handling of flammable dusts, this study aims to find the most optimal inert for toner waste from printers and Holi powder (organic coloured dust from Indian parties), taking Lycopodium as a reference. Calcium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and gypsum are proposed as inert materials. In addition, with the aim of giving a second use to biomass boiler waste or boiler slagging, this waste will be analyzed as inert, as well as how humidity affects the combustible dusts. Then, sodium bicarbonate will be tested at different granulometries to evaluate the effect of particle size on moderation process. The tests were carried out in the modified Hartmann apparatus or MIKE 3.0. Mechanisms such as decomposition of inert dust have been analyzed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)). The results show that gypsum and moisture are the best performing inert followed by calcium carbonate. Boiler slagging and solid bicarbonate contribute to a decrease in the MIE in some of the tests. The reasons for this deviation are discussed in the presented article. When sodium bicarbonate is analyzed at different particle sizes, it is found that the optimum particle size does not match the particle size of the combustible dust. According to the tests, there is an optimum point for which the inert powder provides better results.     

Study of the influence of melamine polyphosphate and aluminum hydroxide on the flame propagation and explosion overpressure of aluminum magnesium alloy dust

When aluminum magnesium alloy dust floats in the air, a certain ignition energy can easily cause an accidental explosion. To prevent and control the occurrence of accidental explosions and reduce the severity of accidents, it is necessary to carry out research on the explosion suppression of aluminum magnesium alloy dust. This paper uses a vertical glass tube experimental device and a 20 L spherical explosive experimental device to carry out experimental studies on the suppression of the flame propagation and explosion overpressure of aluminum magnesium alloy dust with melamine polyphosphate (MPP) and Al(OH)₃. With increasing MPP and Al(OH)₃ concentrations, the flame brightness darkened, the flame velocity and propagation distance gradually decreased, and P_max and (dp/dt)_max decreased significantly. When the amount of MPP added reached 60%, the flame propagation distance decreased to 188 mm, which is a decrease of 68%, and the explosion overpressure decreased to 0.014 MPa, effectively suppressing the explosion of aluminum magnesium alloy dust. The experimental results showed that MPP was more effective than Al(OH)₃ in inhibiting the flame propagation and explosion overpressure of the aluminum magnesium alloy dust. Finally, the inhibitory mechanisms of the MPP and Al(OH)₃ were further investigated. The MPP and Al(OH)₃ endothermic decomposition produced an inert gas, diluted the oxygen concentration and trapped active radicals to terminate the combustion chain reaction.     

两种含水率水稻堆垛的着火与蔓延燃烧特性实验研究

粮食安全事关国计民生,近年来粮仓火灾多发,对于粮食火灾安全的基础性研究,显得愈加迫切。基于自主设计的贯穿气流条件下的散粒堆垛引燃与蔓延燃烧特性研究实验平台,针对两种含水率水稻,在不同贯穿气流条件下,开展了引燃与内部蔓延燃烧特性研究。结果表明,水稻含水率对其燃烧特性具有重要影响,即,对于13%含水率水稻,采用高温电热细棒插入堆垛内进行引燃45 min,并未引燃;然而,对于3%含水率水稻,仅引燃4 min,堆垛即形成迅速剧烈蔓延燃烧,中心区域燃烧温度高达1 200℃,最大蔓延速度约0.8 cm/s,引燃前的最大升温速率约200℃/min。此外,结果还表明,贯穿气流条件下,远离中心区域的四周水稻升温较慢且剩余一些最终未引燃,水稻堆垛内部主要呈向下且不断扩大的蔓延燃烧特征。最后,13%含水率水稻被灼热引火源作用结束后形成的碳化圈大小表明,机械通风气调作用对于灼热源的引燃作用具有一定的抑制作用。     

Experimental and simulation studies on the influence of carbon monoxide on explosion characteristics of methane

In underground coal mining, methane explosions often can cause tremendous disasters. In the meantime, carbon monoxide (CO), generated during the process of coal oxidation, may appear in the air. Therefore, the explosion characteristics of the mixture of CH₄ and CO must be investigated to prevent gas explosion accidents in coal mines. We conducted experiments by using a 20-L nearly spherical gas explosion testing device. The software FLACS was used to simulate the explosion of the mixture of CH₄ and CO at various mixing concentrations, and the simulation results corresponded to experimental results. With the increase of CO concentration, both upper and lower explosive limits of CH₄ decreased. On the whole, the explosion characteristic parameters of CH₄ and the mixture are similar. When CH₄ concentration was below the stoichiometric concentration, the addition of CO could promote the intensity of gas explosion; oppositely, excessive CO would inhibit the gas explosion reaction. The inhibitory effects become more significant as the concentration of CH₄ increases.     

构造煤承压过程瓦斯渗透特性实验研究

构造煤具有瓦斯含量高、渗透率低等特征,是瓦斯抽采和灾害预防的难点。在采用“二次成型”法制取原煤样试件的基础上使用自行设计的“三轴应力瓦斯渗透性模拟实验装置”通过“应力-渗透性”实验,针对构造煤原煤试件不同瓦斯压力条件下的应力加、卸载过程的瓦斯渗透规律进行了研究。实验结果表明:加载阶段,随着加载应力的增大渗透率降低,初期阶段降幅最为急剧,围压升到3 MPa时,渗透率均下降近65%;卸载阶段渗透率随着应力的减小而增大,围压完全卸载后渗透率只恢复到初始值的25%;同样的应力条件下,煤基质收缩对构造煤的影响作用大于有效应力的增加,渗透率随着其内部瓦斯压力的降低而增大。实验结果可为构造煤“卸压增透”效果最佳化提供参考,进一步完善低渗透率煤层的瓦斯抽采理论及方法体系。     

Real-time numerical simulations and experimental research for the propagation characteristics of shock waves and gas flow during coal and gas outburst

When coal and gas outburst occurs, high-speed gas flow and air shock wave with high kinetic energy could be created. In this paper, the formation process of outburst shock waves and gas flow has been analyzed firstly. Afterwards, the numerical simulation models of the roadways with right-angled intersection have been established, by which real-time simulation of the propagation of outburst gas flow and the process of gas transport has been conducted. Gas pressure, gas velocity and gas concentration can be simulated and shown. From analyzing the simulation results, qualitative and quantitative conclusions that the characteristics and patterns of the propagation and attenuation of outburst shock waves and gas flow can be arrived at. Finally, experimental models have been carried out to investigate the outburst shock waves and gas flow at the roadways with the similar shapes as the simulated ones. The results indicate that when shock wave and gas flow passes the intersection, most of the shock wave and gas flow will flow into the roadway of section opposite the intersection, and a little of it would flow into the roadway below the intersection. And turbulence will appear, shock wave reflects and diffracts at branches with more influence on the roadway below the intersection.     

乌鲁木齐市采暖期与非采暖期大气PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)中水溶性离子特征分析

为了解乌鲁木齐市采暖期和非采暖期大气颗粒物(PM_(2.5)和PM_(10))水溶性离子污染特征,于2015年在乌鲁木齐市采集两个时期大气颗粒物样品,采用离子色谱仪(IC)等仪器对PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)中的9种水溶性离子进行了定量分析。结果表明,乌鲁木齐市采暖期PM_(2.5)与PM_(10)中水溶性离子平均质量浓度分别为(76.26±36.15)μg/m3和(88.94±41.43)μg/m3,约为非采暖期的2倍,主要水溶性离子是SO2-4、NH_4~+、NO-3和Cl-,这4种水溶性离子分别占PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)中总水溶性离子的88.91%和90.03%;非采暖期PM_(2.5)与PM_(10)中水溶性离子平均质量浓度分别为(37.62±14.03)μg/m3和(44.12±16.79)μg/m3,主要水溶性离子是SO2-4、NH_4~+、NO-3和Ca2+,这4种水溶性离子分别占PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)中总水溶性离子的88.18%和86.96%。采暖期PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)中NH_4~+、SO2-4、NO-3三者之间有强相关性,它们可能具有相似的来源;而非采暖期NH_4~+和SO2-4、Cl-的相关性最强,非采暖期NH_4~+在PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)中主要以(NH_4)2SO4和NH_4Cl形式存在。采暖期和非采暖期乌鲁木齐市[NO-3]/[SO2-4]均小于1,推测乌鲁木齐市颗粒物污染可能主要来源于固定排放源。