Pyrosequencing Analysis of Norovirus Genogroup II Distribution in Sewage and Oysters: First Detection of GII.17 Kawasaki 2014 in Oysters

Norovirus GII.3, GII.4, and GII.17 were detected using pyrosequencing in sewage and oysters in January and February 2015, in Japan. The strains in sewage and oyster samples were genetically identical or similar, predominant strains belonging to GII.17 Kawasaki 2014 lineage. This is the first report of GII.17 Kawasaki 2014 in oysters.     

An Outbreak of Norovirus Infection from Shellfish Soup Due to Unforeseen Insufficient Heating During Preparation

Norovirus causes large outbreaks involving all age groups and are considered the most common cause of infectious foodborne diseases worldwide. The aim of this study was to describe a norovirus outbreak connected to insufficient heat treatment during preparation of a shellfish soup in serving portions, during a company Christmas celebration in Norway, December 2013. A questionnaire sent to the employees, showed that 67 % (n = 43) of the celebration participants, reported gastrointestinal symptoms including stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and light fever in the period between 24 and 48 h post celebration. Several dishes were served, including shellfish soup made with carpet shell clams (Tapes rhomboides) in porcelain cups. Consuming this soup, was the only significant risk factor for infection. Norovirus GI and GII were detected in the remaining raw shellfish. To mimic the time and temperature obtained during bivalve soup preparation, raw chopped shellfish tissue and raw cepa onion were added in porcelain cups tempered to 20 °C. To each of these cups, boiling soup base was added. The temperature in the shellfish tissue was continuously recorded, and showed a maximum of 49 °C in the period between 3 and 7 min after adding the boiling soup base. After 1 h the temperature was 30 °C. This time and temperature combination was obviously not sufficient for inactivation of norovirus present in the shellfish tissue. In conclusion, the heat-absorbing capacity of cold ingredients, utensils and table wear porcelain should not be underestimated during food production. Consumers who want to avoid eating raw shellfish, should not assume that the shellfish tissue in preparation as described in our study is adequately heat treated.     

浙南海域贝类体内有机氯农药的残留水平

2009年8月在浙南海域采集了7种28个主要养殖和野生贝类,运用气相色谱法对贝类体内有机氯(HCHs和DDTs)农药残留进行检测。结果表明:贝类体内HCHs和DDTs全部有检出,HCHs残留量不高,均符合海洋生物质量一类标准,60.7%贝类DDTs超海洋生物质量一类标准;太平洋牡蛎对DDTs富集效果较为明显,残留量高;浙南海域可能存在新的DDT输入源。     

First Report of the Presence of Hepatitis E Virus in Scottish-Harvested Shellfish Purchased at Retail Level

Shellfish samples (n = 310) purchased from local supermarkets were analysed for the presence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) by nested RT-PCR and real-time qRT-PCR. Overall, 2.9% of samples tested positive for the presence of HEV. Phylogenetic analysis of HEV sequences revealed all as being genotype 3 HEV. This is the first report of the detection of HEV in commercially sold shellfish in Scotland. These findings may encourage further research that will help address the gaps in the knowledge in respect to foodborne transmission of HEV in Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom.     

福建沿海城市霾天气特征

利用2006年1月—2010年12月福建省沿海6个城市的能见度、相对湿度、降水、天气形势和大气污染物资料,对霾天气时空变化特征、霾与天气形势的关系进行了分析. 结果表明:宁德市每年霾日数最少,为12～26 d;漳州市霾日数最多,为74～118 d;而福州、厦门和泉州三市的霾日数相近.6个城市霾天气主要出现在12月—次年6月,7—11月霾的出现率极低且均以轻微霾为主,所占比例在85.5%以上;持续时间短暂的霾较多,半天和全天的霾较少. 在暖区辐合、高空槽和变性冷高压3种天气形势下霾出现频率均较高,分别达到21.2%～49.5%、9.1%～42.3%、6.1%～47.5%. ρ(PM₁₀)与能见度的相关系数最高,为-0.44~-0.33,并且各城市霾天气下的ρ(PM₁₀)均明显高于非霾天气;ρ(SO₂)除莆田市外,ρ(NO₂)除漳州市外,其他城市ρ(SO₂)和ρ(NO₂)均为霾天气高于非霾天气.      

Detection of Norovirus GII.17 Kawasaki 2014 in Shellfish,Marine Water and Underwater Sewage Discharges in Italy

Norovirus (NoV) is a major cause of non-bacterial acute gastroenteritis worldwide, and the variants of genotype GII.4 are currently the predominant human strains. Recently, a novel variant of NoV GII.17 (GII.P17_GII.17 NoV), termed Kawasaki 2014, has been reported as the cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks in Asia, replacing the pandemic strain GII.4 Sydney 2012. The GII.17 Kawasaki 2014 variant has also been reported sporadically in patients with gastroenteritis outside of Asia, including Italy. In this study, 384 shellfish samples were subjected to screening for human NoVs using real-time PCR and 259 (67.4%) tested positive for Genogroup II (GII) NoV. Of these, 52 samples, selected as representative of different areas and sampling dates, were further amplified by conventional PCR targeting the capsid gene, using broad-range primers. Forty shellfish samples were characterized by amplicon sequencing as GII.4 (n = 29), GII.2 (n = 4), GII.6 (n = 2), GII.12 (n = 2), and GII.17 (n = 3). Sixty-eight water samples (39 seawater samples from the corresponding shellfish production areas and 29 water samples from nearby underwater sewage discharge points) were also tested using the above broad-range assay: eight NoV-positive samples were characterized as GII.1 (n = 3), GII.2 (n = 1), GII.4 (n = 2), and GII.6 (n = 2). Based on full genome sequences available in public databases, a novel RT-PCR nested assay specific for GII.17 NoVs was designed and used to re-test the characterized shellfish (40) and water (8) samples. In this second screening, the RNA of GII.17 NoV was identified in 17 additional shellfish samples and in one water sample. Upon phylogenetic analysis, these GII.17 NoV isolates were closely related to the novel GII.17 Kawasaki 2014. Interestingly, our findings chronologically matched the emergence of the Kawasaki 2014 variant in the Italian population (early 2015), as reported by hospital-based NoV surveillance. These results, showing GII.17 NoV strains to be widespread in shellfish samples collected in 2015 in Italy, provide indirect evidence that this strain has started circulating in the Italian population. Notably, using a specific assay, we were able to detect many more samples positive for GII.17 NoV, indicating that, in food and water matrices, broad-range assays for NoV may grossly underestimate the prevalence of some, less common, NoVs. The detection of the GII.17 strain Kawasaki 2014 in clinical, water and food samples in Italy highlights the need for more systematic surveillance for future disease control and prevention.     

Critical Review on the Public Health Impact of Norovirus Contamination in Shellfish and the Environment: A UK Perspective

We review the risk of norovirus (NoV) infection to the human population from consumption of contaminated shellfish. From a UK perspective, risk is apportioned for different vectors of NoV infection within the population. NoV spreads mainly by person-to-person contact or via unsanitary food handling. NoV also enters the coastal zone via wastewater discharges resulting in contamination of shellfish waters. Typically, NoV persists in the marine environment for several days, with its presence strongly linked to human population density, wastewater discharge rate, and efficacy of wastewater treatment. Shellfish bioaccumulate NoV and current post-harvest depuration is inefficient in its removal. While NoV can be inactivated by cooking (e.g. mussels), consumption of contaminated raw shellfish (e.g. oysters) represents a risk to human health. Consumption of contaminated food accounts for 3–11% of NoV cases in the UK (~74,000 cases/year), of which 16% are attributable to oyster consumption (11,800 cases/year). However, environmental and human factors influencing NoV infectivity remain poorly understood. Lack of standard methods for accurate quantification of infective and non-infective (damaged) NoV particles represent a major barrier, hampering identification of an appropriate lower NoV contamination limit for shellfish. Future management strategies may include shellfish quality assessment (at point of harvest or at point of supply) or harvesting controls. However, poor understanding of NoV inactivation in shellfish and the environment currently limits accurate apportionment and risk assessment for NoV and hence the identification of appropriate shellfish or environmental quality standards.     

辽宁省沿海城市自然灾害脆弱性评价

文章以辽宁省沿海六市为研究对象,在广泛借鉴国内外灾害脆弱性评价的指标体系与评价模型的基础上,选取自然、经济、人口和环境设施等评价指标,构建沿海城市自然灾害脆弱性评价指标体系,并运用模糊综合评价法进行脆弱性评价。结果表明:葫芦岛市、锦州市、丹东市为高脆弱区;营口市为中脆弱区;盘锦市和大连市为低脆弱区。本文研究对沿海城市脆弱性防范有一定借鉴意义。     

沿海城市灰霾天气与海盐氯损耗机制的关系

随着经济规模迅速扩大和城市化进程加快,大气气溶胶污染日趋严重,由细粒子气溶胶造成的能见度恶化事件越来越多,这些人类活动排放的污染物,可形成灰霾天气致使能见度下降。尤其值得注意的是沿海城市灰霾天气增长较快,沿海城市灰霾天气增多与海盐气溶胶粒子的氯损耗机制关系密切。我国30年前在粉尘污染时代建立的空气质量评价体系,已经远远不能描述新型复合空气污染类型,尤其是不能描述细粒子污染的情况,能见度的恶化主要与细粒子的浓度关系比较大,而与气溶胶的质量浓度关系不大。能见度与PM2.5尤其是PM1有非常好的关系,因而目前用能见度来描述灰霾天气是最好的指标。     

市售贝类麻痹性贝毒快速生化检测方法探究

为了研究快速检测海产品中低浓度麻痹性贝毒(paralytic shellfish poisoning,PSP)的生化方法,在传统小白鼠法的基础上,使用浓度(以STXeq计)为1和0.2μg/kg的市售双壳贝类PSP提取液对小鼠进行腹腔注射,分别研究暴露15、60、120min后小鼠血液中ACh、AChE、NO和NOS的变化情况.结果发现,低浓度(0.2μg/kg)、短时间(15min)条件下仅ACh含量发生显著变化[与对照组相比p0.05,含量(以蛋白计)为(141.2±14.8)μg/mg];而NO与NOS却在长时间(120min)暴露后才发生改变[与对照组相比p0.05,分别为(68.7±3.8)μmol/g及(40.1±4.9)U/mg].在高浓度下,3个时间点的ACh含量也均发生显著变化.结果表明,在低浓度及短时间条件下反映PSP效应的指标仅是ACh,从而可以尝试选择其作为快速检测PSP的生化指标.     

中国城市汞污染控制对策的思考

汞是唯一在常温常压下呈液态的金属元素,对人体健康和生态环境具有很大的负面影响。本文描述了国内汞污染状况和大气中汞的来源,总结了国内外汞污染控制措施,以期为城市制定和实施汞污染控制对策提供借鉴。     

中国城市的可持续发展

环境问题正严重制约着世界城市化的健康发展,摒弃传统的城市化模式,开创可持续的城市发展道路,已成为新世纪国际社会面临的重大课题。因此,以整体观点探索城市可持续发展管理具有十分重要的意义。本文综述了中国城市化和城市环境状况,回顾了中国城市环境保护工作发展的历史,简要介绍了城市可持续发展在中国的实施,并以青岛市为例,剖析了创建国家环境保护模范城市给城市发展带来的巨大变化。     

The Influence of Temperature on Norovirus Inactivation by Monochloramine in Potable Waters: Testing with Murine Norovirus as a Surrogate for Human Norovirus

Human noroviral infections are generally more common during winters in temperate regions. This study used a murine norovirus (MNV) as a human norovirus surrogate to test the effect of water temperature (4 and 25°C) on virus survival and its susceptibility to the levels of monochloramine (~1.89 ppm) to terminally disinfect municipally treated potable waters. The titre of MNV remained essentially unchanged for at least 24 h in raw river water at both temperatures. The virus became undetectable in <2 h in monochloramine-containing samples held at 25°C, but its titre remained virtually unaltered at 4°C (P < 0.05) under the same conditions. These findings strongly suggest that water temperature can influence the norovirucidal activity of monochloramine and its possible impact on the seasonality of outbreaks of noroviral infections.     

中国华北区域城市间污染物输送研究

通过对华北地区城市间大气污染监测资料分析发现,城市之间存在着大气污染的相互影响和输送问题,大气污染是一个区域性的环境问题。治理和改善北京地区的大气环境,需要考虑周边地区影响,并实施综合性的污染控制和治理对策。使用二维欧拉统计模式,以SO2,SO42-,PM₁₀为模拟对象,模拟其远距离输送和沉降过程。对2002年的区域空气污染状况进行了模拟,模拟区域包括了所要研究的北京市、天津市、河北省等地区。利用实测资料对模式计算结果的检验显示,二者的相关系数平均为0 55。对资料的综合分析表明,北京大气环境中20%的PM₁₀及23%左右的SO2都是来自北京周边地区。      

我国城市天然气管道事故统计及分析

对2003年3月至2008年1月间我国城市天然气管道事故进行了初步统计,分析事故原因并提出了促进城市天然气安全的对策.     

Distribution of Naturally Occurring Norovirus Genogroups I,II, and IV in Oyster Tissues

This study evaluated different tissues of naturally contaminated oysters (Crassostrea belcheri) for the presence of noroviruses. RNA from digestive tissues, gills, and mantle of the oysters was extracted and tested for norovirus genogroup (G) I, GII, and GIV using RT-nested PCR. In spiking experiments with a known norovirus, GII.4, the detection limits were 2.97 × 10² RNA copies/g of digestive tissues, 2.62 × 10² RNA copies/g of gills, and 1.61 × 10³ RNA copies/g of mantle. A total of 85 oyster samples were collected from a fresh market in Bangkok, Thailand. Noroviruses were found in the oyster samples (40/85, 47%): GI (29/85, 34.1%), GII (9/85, 10.5%), mixed GI and GII (1/85, 1.2%), and GIV (1/85, 1.2%). All three genogroups were found in the digestive tissues of oysters. Norovirus GI was present in all three tissues with the highest frequency in the mantle, and was additionally detected in multiple tissues in some oysters. GII was also detected in all three tissues, but was not detected in multiple tissues in the same oyster. For genogroup I, only GI.2 could be identified and it was found in all tissues. For genogroup II, three different genotypes were identified, namely GII.4 which was detected in the gills and the mantle, GII.17 which was detected in the digestive tissues, and GII.21 which was detected in the mantle. GIV.1 was identified in the digestive tissues of one oyster. This is the first report on the presence of human GIV.1 in oyster in Thailand, and the results indicate oyster as a possible vehicle for transmission of all norovirus genogroups in Thailand.     

中国七大河流水资源开发利用率阈值

从二元水循环角度分析地表水资源开发利用率的影响因素,说明地表水资源开发利用率与河道生态需水、回归水及其污染物浓度之间有着密切的关系。以河道生态需水、污径比为约束条件,分析了水资源开发利用率与消耗系数之间的关系,其呈现出logistic曲线增长趋势,随着消耗系数的增加,允许水资源开发利用率经历逐渐增加→最大值→下降的趋势,波动的范围从20%→50%→40%。以我国七大河流为例,估算了在当前水资源消耗水平下地表水资源允许开发利用率的阈值。结果表明:松花江、辽河、海河、黄河、淮河、长江、珠江的阈值分别是34%、38%、45%、36%、38%、31%、32%。与现状水资源开发利用率比较的结果是,松花江、长江、珠江等3条河流的水资源开发利用率在其阈值范围之内,辽河、海河、黄河、淮河等4条河流的开发利用率均超过了最大允许开发利用率。     

《环境保护科学》第41卷(2015)总目次

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舟山近海水体和沉积物中多环芳烃分布特征

2012年,每两个月采集1次浙江省舟山近海水样及表层沉积物样品,检测16种多环芳烃(PAHs)含量.结果表明,舟山近海水体和沉积物中PAHs均存在显著的时空差异性,水体ΣPAHs浓度范围为382.3~816.9 ng·L-1,平均值为552.5ng·L-1;沉积物ΣPAHs含量范围为1017.9~3047.1 ng·g-1,平均值为2022.4 ng·g-1.空间分布上,水体ΣPAHs最大值和最小值分别出现在小洋山和燕窝山海域,而沉积物中分别出现在小洋山和朱家尖南沙海域.时间变化上,水体ΣPAHs最大值和最小值出现在10月和6月,而沉积物中分别出现在8月和6月.PAHs污染来源主要是油类排放和木柴、煤燃烧的共同叠加作用.结合PAHs的生物阈值,利用超标系数法评价舟山近海PAHs的生态风险,结果表明,ΣPAHs存在较低几率的潜在风险,但苊单体存在较高几率的潜在风险,二氢苊和芴可能存在生态风险.对水-沉积物界面PAHs的富集研究表明,舟山近海沉积物中富集了大量PAHs,富集系数(Kd值)岱山岛大于舟山本岛,并与沉积物的PAHs含量分布一致.