The in vitro metabolism of lindane by an enzyme preparation from chicken liver.

The soluble fraction (105,000 x g, 30 min) of chicken liver homogenates contained an enzyme(s), probably a dehydrochlorinase(s), which metabolized lindane in vitro. The reaction was glutathione dependent and took place anaerobically. The enzyme(s) also metabolized the alpha- and delta-isomers but not the beta-isomer. About 66% of the in vitro metabolites were soluble in petroleum ether. From the ether-soluble fraction, o-, p- amd m-dichlorobenzene, 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, gamma-2,3,4,5,6-pentachlorocyclohex-1-ene (gamma-PCCH), 2,3- and 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol were identified by comparison of mass spectra and gas chromatographic data with those of reference compounds. Seven additional metabolites were tentatively identified from their mass spectra data. These metabolites were: chlorobenzene, 2 isomers of trichlorocyclohexene, dichlorocyclohexadienetriol, chlorophenol, trichlorocyclohexenol and trichlorocyclohexanediol. The petroleum ether-extracted aqueous phase contained a number of unidentified conjugated metabolites. It was concluded that the metabolic pathway for lindane in the chicken is quite similar to that in the pheasant.     

Biodegradation of mixed pesticides by mixed pesticide enriched cultures

This paper discusses the degradation kinetics of mixed (lindane, methyl parathion and carbofuran) pesticides by mixed pesticide enriched cultures (MEC) under various environmental conditions. The bacterial strains isolated from the mixed microbial consortium were identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 9236), Bacillus sp. (MTCC 9235) and Chryseobacterium joostei (MTCC 9237). Batch studies were conducted to estimate the biokinetic parameters like the maximum specific growth rate (μ_max), Yield Coefficient (Y_T), half saturation concentration (K_s) and inhibition concentration (Ki) for individual and mixed pesticide enriched cultures. The cultures enriched in a particular pollutant always showed high growth rate and low inhibition in that particular pollutant compared to MEC. After seven weeks of incubation, mixed pesticide enriched cultures were able to degrade 72% lindane, 95% carbofuran and 100% of methyl parathion in facultative co-metabolic conditions. In aerobic systems, degradation efficiencies of lindane methyl parathion and carbofuran were increased by the addition of 2g L^{? 1} of dextrose. Though many metabolic compounds of mixed pesticides were observed at different time intervals, none of the metabolites were persistent. Based on the observed metabolites, a degradation pathway was postulated for different pesticides under various environmental conditions.     

A pond mesocosm study to determine direct and indirect effects of lindane on a natural zooplankton community

We assessed the threshold concentrations for toxic effects by lindane on a zooplankton community using mesocosms in a natural pond. Enclosures (1000 litres) were treated to give mean concentrations of 0, 2, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 50 microg litre(-1) over a test period of 39 days. Larvae of the phantom midge Chaoborus flavicans showed a high susceptibility to lindane and were virtually eliminated from enclosures with > or =12 microg litre(-1) 4 days after application. Populations of cyclopoid nauplii (Eucyclops serrulatus) were reduced at a lindane concentration of 2 microg litre(-1) and showed high mortality after 11 days exposure to > or =6 g litre(-1). No lindane-induced effects could be seen in the cladoceran species Daphnia longispina and Chydorus sphaericus. Rotifer species were probably not directly affected by lindane; however loss of the principal predator Chaoborus was accompanied by an increase in the numbers of Asplanchna priodonta. A simultaneous decrease in Keratella quadrata possibly reflected predation since its decline showed no dose-response relationship with lindane and it is among the major prey of Asplanchna. Such complex secondary effects, occurring through trophic interactions between a predator and two co-occurring prey, would not have been predicted from single-species toxicity tests. These, and effects on cyclopoid populations that occurred predominantly through the mortality of nauplii, demonstrate the value of toxicological studies on natural communities. We conclude that a combination of laboratory and field investigations, coupled with mono-species and community assessments, provide the best route for understanding the effects of toxicants such as lindane for regulatory purposes.     

Biodegradation of lindane, methyl parathion and carbofuran by various enriched bacterial isolates

In the present study, lindane (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane), methyl parathion (O-dimethylO-(4-nitro-phenyl) phosphorothioate) and carbofuran (2,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl methylcarbamate) degradation potential of different enriched bacterial cultures were evaluated under various environmental conditions. Enriched cultures behaved differently with different pesticides. Degradation was more in a facultative anaerobic condition as compared to that in aerobic condition. A specific pesticide enriched culture showed maximum degradation of that pesticide irrespective of pesticides and environmental conditions. Lindane and endosulfan enriched cultures behaved almost similarly. Degradation of lindane by lindane enriched cultures was 75 +/- 3% in aerobic co-metabolic process whereas 78 +/- 5% of lindane degradation occurred in anaerobic co-metabolic process. Degradation of methyl parathion by methyl parathion enriched culture was 87 +/- 1% in facultative anaerobic condition. In almost all the cases, many intermediate metabolites were observed. However, many of these metabolites disappeared after 4-6 weeks of incubation. Mixed pesticide-enriched culture degraded all the three pesticides more effectively as compared to specific pesticide- enriched cultures. It can be inferred from the results that a bacterial consortium enriched with a mixture of all the possible pesticides that are present in the site seems to be a better option for the effective bioremediation of multi-pesticide contaminated site.     

Spatial distribution of lindane in topsoil of Northern France

Lindane is a persistent organochlorine insecticide and the use of this insecticide in agriculture was banned in France in 1998. In this study we investigated the concentrations of lindane in topsoil in Northern France and used robust geostatistics to map the geographical distribution of lindane. The study was based on a 16 km × 16 km grid covering an area of ca 25 000 km². Lindane was found in all soils, even those from non-agricultural-application areas. Very low ratios of α-/γ-HCH and δ-/γ-HCH suggested that a long time had passed since technical HCH was used in the studied area, or that emission sources of lindane were still present. A strong gradient in lindane concentration was observed, with the highest lindane concentrations in an area located in the northern region. Results suggested that some of the lindane observed in the high concentration area may have come from volatilization of old lindane applied to intensively cultivated areas, which was then transported by prevailing winds coming from the south-west and deposited in a densely inhabited depression.     

Determination of lindane leachability in soil-biosolid systems and its bioavailability in wheat plants

The leachability of lindane from different biosolid amended soils was determined and compared to its bioavailability. Sand, soil, and a mixture of soil-sand (1:1 w/w) were spiked with lindane, blended with different amounts of biosolids, and subjected to a leaching process with water that lasted for 1-28 d. This procedure is in accordance with ISO/TS 21268-1: 2007. After these batch tests, lindane was extracted from the leachates using three different solvent-free microextraction techniques, including solid phase microextraction (SPME), stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), and silicone rod extraction (SRE). The amount of lindane was determined with thermal desorption and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The efficiencies of the three microextraction techniques were statistically different, and the efficiency could be related to the amount of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) in each extraction device. However, all of the techniques provide data that shows that the leachability of lindane is dependent on the amount of organic matter contained in the matrix.The results of the lindane leachability assay were compared to the bioavailability of lindane, which was determined by measuring the amount of lindane that accumulated in the roots of wheat plants grown in similar soil-biosolid systems.It was confirmed that the amount of organic matter in the matrix is a determining factor for lindane immobilization. The presence of biosolids decreases the mobility of lindane in all of the systems under study. Similarly, increasing biosolid concentrations in the soil significantly decreased the bioavailability of lindane and, consequently, plant absorption.The good correlation (R² = 0.997) between the leachability of lindane from the matrix and plant absorption of lindane indicates that the proposed biomimetic methodology can predict the bioavailability of lindane in a time period as short as 7 d.The results of this work confirm that amending contaminated soils with biosolids is beneficial for immobilizing lindane and helps prevent the percolation of lindane through the soil profile and into groundwater.     

Ammonium,Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen and Nitrate Reductase Enzyme Activity in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Fields After Diazinon,Imidacloprid and Lindane Treatments

Impacts of diazinon (O,O-diethyl O-2-isopropyl-6-methylpyrimidin-4-yl phosphorothioate), imidacloprid [1-(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)-N-nitroimidazolidin-2-ylideneamine] and lindane (1,2,3,4,5.6-hexachlorocyclohexane) treatments on ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite nitrogen and nitrate reductase enzyme activities were determined in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) field for three consecutive years (1997 to 1999). Diazinon was applied for both seed- and soil-treatments but imidacloprid and lindane were used for seed treatments only at recommended rates. Diazinon residues persisted for 60 days in both the cases. Average half-lives (t_1/2) of diazinon were found 29.3 and 34.8 days respectively in seed and soil treatments. In diazinon seed treatment, NH₄ ⁺, NO₃ ^?, and NO₂ ^? nitrogen and nitrate reductase activity were not affected. Whereas, diazinon soil treatment indicated significant increase in NH₄ ⁺-N in a 1-day sample, which continued until 90 days. Some declines in NO₃ ^?N were found from 15 to 60 days. Along with this decline, significant increases in NO₂ ^?N and nitrate reductase activity were found between 1 and 30 days. Imidacloprid and lindane persisted for 90 and 120 days with average half-lives (t_1/2) of 40.9 and 53.3 days, respectively. Within 90 days, imidacloprid residues lost by 73.17% to 82.49% while such losses for lindane residues were found 78.19% to 79.86 % within 120 days. In imidacloprid seed-treated field, stimulation of NO₃ ^?N and the decline in NH₄ ⁺NO₂ ^?-N and nitrate reductase enzyme activity were observed between 15 to 90 days. However, lindane seed treatment indicated significant increases in NH₄ ⁺-N, NO₂ ^?-N and nitrate reductase activity and some adverse effects on NO₃ ^?N between 15 and 90 days.     

Identification of hydroxylated metabolites in 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether exposed rats

Faeces from day 1-5 of orally administered 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) in rat have been analysed for hydroxylated metabolites. Six hydroxylated tetrabrominated diphenyl ethers, as well as three hydroxylated tribrominated diphenyl ethers found, were structurally identified. They were 2'-hydroxy-2,4,4'-tribromodiphenyl ether, 3'-hydroxy-2,4,4'-tribromodiphenyl ether, 4'-hydroxy-2,2',4-tribromodiphenyl ether, 6-hydroxy-2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether, 2'-hydroxy-2,3',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether, 3-hydroxy-2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether, 5-hydroxy-2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether, 4'-hydroxy-2,2',4,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether and 4-hydroxy-2,2',3,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether. The analysis was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The identification of the hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ether (OH-PBDE) metabolites in the rat faeces was supported by similar relative retention times (RRTs) versus 2,2',3,4,4',5-hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-138) on two columns of different polarities compared to the authentic references. The identification of the OH-PBDE metabolites was also supported by full scan electron ionisation mass spectra. Two of the identified OH-PBDE metabolites have identical structures as natural products, which previously have been isolated from marine sponges and an ascidian.     

Insecticide residues in the blood serum and domestic water source of cacao farmers in Southwestern Nigeria

The blood serum of cacao farmers and their domestic water sources were analyzed for insecticide residues in selected cacao growing communities of Southwestern Nigeria. The farmers were grouped into five exposure periods based on their years of involvement in insecticide application, viz, <5 years, 5-9 years, 10-14 years, 15-19 years and >20 years. The residue analyses revealed that 42 out of the 76 farmers had residues of diazinon, endosulfan, propoxur and lindane in their blood; and 47.6% out of these farmers belonged in the >20 years exposure duration period. About 34% of the farmers had diazinon with a mean concentration of 0.067 mg kg(-1), 29% endosulfan (mean=0.033 mg kg(-1)), 23% propoxur (mean=0.095 mg kg(-1)), and 17% lindane (mean=0.080 mg kg(-1)) in their blood. The residues of lindane, endosulfan and propoxur in all the exposure duration categories were found to be far below the no observable adverse effect level (NOAEL) while diazinon residues detected in the blood serum of the farmers in all the exposure duration categories exceeded the NOAEL of 0.02 mg kg(-1) for the insecticide. The study also revealed that the sources of drinking water had been contaminated with dazinon and propoxur in some of the farmers' localities; and the concentrations of the insecticides exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI). It is concluded that cacao farmers in Southwestern Nigeria may have been occupationally exposed due to insecticide application for mirid control in their cacao plantations; and the exposure at times is of such magnitude as to be hazardous to the farmers and their respective communities.     

Photolysis of the herbicide bispyribac sodium in aqueous medium under the influence of UV and sunlight in presence or absence of sensitizers

The photolysis of a rice herbicide Bispyribac sodium (Sodium 2, 6-bis [(4, 6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl) oxy] benzoate) has been studied in different aqueous medium (distilled water, pond water and Irrigation water) under the influence of UV (λ max ≥ 250 nm) and sunlight in presence or absence of sensitizers (TiO₂ and KNO₃). The study was conducted under laboratory simulated condition which made it possible to evaluate the contribution of different factors viz. source of irradiation, solvent and sensitizers towards the photolysis of bispyribac sodium. The photodegradation proceeds via first order reaction Kinetics in all the cases. Five photo metabolites (M₁-M₅) were isolated in pure form by column chromatographic method from the irradiation system under UV influenced and TiO₂ as sensitizer. From the different spectral data (IR, NMR, UV-VIS, Mass) the structure of these five metabolites were assigned as M₁ (Phenol), M₂ [2, 6-Dihydroxy benzoic acid], M₃ [2, 6-bis [(4, 6 dimethoxypyrimidin-2yl) oxy] benzoic acid], M₄ [2-(3-Hydroxy-phenoxy)-pyrimidine-4, 6-diol] and M₅ as [2,4-Dihydroxy-3, 5-dimethoxy-6-(4-methoxy pyrimidine-2-yloxy)-benzoic acid]. Moreover, another six photometabolites (M₆-M₁₁) were identified from the different irradiation system on the basis of Micromass analysis. On the basis of MS/MS data analysis, the structure of these six photometabolites were assigned as M₆ [2-(4, 6-Dimethoxy-pyrimidin-2-yloxy)-6-hydroxy-benzoic acid], M₇ [2-Hydroxy-6-(4-hydroxy-6-methoxy-pyrimidin-2-yloxy)-benzoic acid], M₈ [4, 6-Dimethoxy-pyrimidin-2-ol], M₉ [6-Methoxy-pyrimidine-2, 4-diol], M₁₀ [2-Hydroxy-6-(pyrimidin-2-yloxy)-benzoic acid] and M₁₁ [2, 4, 6-Trimethoxy-pyrimidine]. The plausible Photodegradation pathways of bispyribac sodium in the present investigation were portrayed which proceeds via hydrolysis, hydrolytic cleavage, O-dealkylation, decarboxylation, dehydroxylation, O-alkylation and hydroxylation.     

Destruction of lindane and atrazine using stabilized iron nanoparticles under aerobic and anaerobic conditions: effects of catalyst and stabilizer

Highly stable Fe-Pd bimetallic nanoparticles were prepared with 0.2% (w/w) of sodium carboxylmethylcellulose (CMC) as a stabilizer. The effectiveness of the stabilized Fe-Pd nanoparticles was studied for degradation of two chlorinated pesticides (lindane and atrazine) under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Batch kinetic tests showed that under anaerobic condition the nanoparticles can serve as strong electron donors and completely reduce 1 mgl(-1) of lindane at an iron dose of 0.5 gl(-1) or 1mg l(-1) of atrazine with 0.05 gl(-1) iron with a trace amount (0.05-0.8% of Fe) of Pd as a catalyst. In contrast, under aerobic condition, the nanoparticles can facilitate Fenton-like reactions, which lead to oxidation of 65% of lindane under otherwise identical conditions. Under aerobic condition, the presence of CMC reduced the level of hydroxyl radicals generated from the nanoparticels by nearly 50%, and thus, inhibited the oxidation of the contaminants. While the particle stabilization greatly enhanced the anaerobic degradation, it did not appear to be beneficial under aerobic condition. The degradation rate was progressively enhanced as the Pd content increased from 0.05% to 0.8% of Fe, and the catalytic effect of Pd was more significant under anaerobic condition. Under anaerobic condition, lindane is degraded via dihaloelimination and dehydrohalogenation, whereas atrazine is by reductive dechlorination followed by subsequent reductive dealkylation. Under aerobic condition, reactive oxygen species and hydroxyl radicals from the iron nanoparticles are responsible for oxidizing the pesticides. Lindane is oxidized via dechlorination/dehydrohalogenation, whereas atrazine is destroyed through dealkylation of the alkylamino side chain.     

Impact of four pesticides on the growth and metabolic activities of two photosynthetic algae

The acute toxicity was determined for soil algae Chlorella kesslerei and Anabaena inaequalis, exposed to pesticides lindane, pentachlorophenol (PCP), isoproturon (IPU), and methyl parathion (MP). Toxicity markers included growth inhibition, chlorophyll biosynthesis, and total carbohydrate content, as a function of dose and time. Concentration response functions (EC50) were estimated by probit data transformation and weighted linear regression analyses. Lindane's toxicity to Chlorella increased sharply with time (EC50 = 7490, 10.3, 0.09 mg L(-1); 24, 48, 72 h), but remained nearly constant through 72 h with Anabaena (8.7-6.7 mg L(-1); 24-72 h). PCP at low concentrations stimulated algal growth and chlorophyll a production, an effect reversed at higher doses. Anabaena was less tolerant of PCP and MP than was Chlorella. The 96-h static EC50 values for Chlorella were: 0.003, 34, 0.05, and 291 mg L(-1) for lindane, PCP, isoproturon, and MP, respectively; for Anabaena, these were 4.2, 0.13, 0.21, and 19 mg L(-1). Carbohydrate production responses were similar to those of cell density (growth) and chlorophyll biosynthesis, with MP having the lowest adverse impact. The overall relative toxicity among the four tested pesticides was: for Chlorella, lindane > IPU > PCP > MP; and for Anabaena, PCP > IPU > lindane > MP. The results confirm that toxicants such as these pesticides may affect individual (though related) species to significantly different degrees.     

HCH contamination from former pesticide production in Brazil—a challenge for the Stockholm Convention implementation

Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (α-, β- and γ- HCH [lindane]) were recently added to the list of persistent organic pollutants regulated by the Stockholm Convention, and therefore, the legacy of HCH and lindane production has become an issue of global relevance. The production of lindane with the much larger quantities of associated waste isomers has generated large waste deposits and contaminated sites. This article presents an overview of HCH-polluted sites in Brazil as a basis for further activities related to the Stockholm Convention. The locations of HCH stockpiles and contaminated sites in Brazil arising from production and formulation have been compiled and mapped. This shows that the measures taken over the past 25 years have not resulted in remediation of the HCH pollution. An exposure risk study has been summarised for one major site and is included to demonstrate the contemporary relevance of the contamination. Major site remediation efforts are planned at one site but people live close to several other sites, and there is an urgent need of further assessments and remediation to ensure the protection of human health and the environment. The Stockholm Convention requires a systematic approach and should be adopted for the assessment of all sites and appropriate isolation/remediation measures should be facilitated. The appropriate planning of these activities for the production site in Rio de Janeiro could be a positive contribution for Rio+20 highlighting that green economy and sustainable production also include the appropriate management of legacies of historic production of an industrial sector (here the organochlorine industry).     

Diffusion mechanism of lindane into wood charcoal

Abstract

The wood charcoal treated by 1N HNO₃ (WCT) was used to remove toxic chlorinated pesticide lindane (y‐HCH) residue from water by the sorption process. Using a simple first order reversible kinetics constants and half time equations, the film and pore diffusion coefficients were determined. Film diffusion was found to be rate limiting step in sorbing lindane by WCT. This was further authenticated by kinetics studies at different initial sorbate concentrations, different sorbent sizes, and different agitation speeds besides interruption test. A pore diffusion model was used to fit the data of kinetics in continuously mixed batch reactors (CMBR), and the tortuosity, external resistance, and surface diffusion effects on lindane sorption by WCT were noticed. The tortuosity values of 15 to 28 were obtained for WCT‐lindane system.     

Seasonal variation of HCH isomers in open soil and plant-rhizospheric soil system of a contaminated environment

Background, aim, and scope  

Lindane, technically 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ- HCH), is the most commonly detected organochlorine pesticide from diverse environmental compartments. Currently, India is the largest consumer and producer of lindane in the world. The production of lindane results in the generation of large quantities of waste HCH isomers (mainly α-, β- and δ-). All these isomers are toxic and have a long-range environmental transport potential. The aim of this study was to monitor the seasonal variation of HCH isomers in an open soil–plant–rhizospheric soil system of a contaminated industrial area. For this, selected plant species and their rhizospheric soil (soil samples collected at a depth range of 0–45 cm near to the root system) and open soil samples (soil samples collected (0–30 cm depth) from 1–1.5 m away from the plant root system) were collected for 2 years (two summer seasons and two winter seasons).     

The effect of lindane on nucleic acids, protein and carbohydrate content in Tetrahymena pyriformis

The effects of four lindane concentrations, i.e. 20, 40, 60 and 80 microg ml(-1), on the nucleic acid, protein and carbohydrate content of Tetrahymena pyriformis have been examined. All the test concentrations inhibited the synthesis of DNA, RNA, protein and carbohydrate contents. The degree of inhibition increased with increasing toxicant concentrations. Protein content was the most sensitive macromolecule affected by lindane.     

Ammonium, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen and nitrate reductase enzyme activity in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) fields after diazinon, imidacloprid and lindane treatments

Impacts of diazinon (O,O-diethyl O-2-isopropyl-6-methylpyrimidin-4-yl phosphorothioate), imidacloprid [1-(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)-N-nitroimidazolidin-2-ylideneamine] and lindane (1,2,3,4,5.6-hexachlorocyclohexane) treatments on ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite nitrogen and nitrate reductase enzyme activities were determined in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) field for three consecutive years (1997 to 1999). Diazinon was applied for both seed- and soil-treatments but imidacloprid and lindane were used for seed treatments only at recommended rates. Diazinon residues persisted for 60 days in both the cases. Average half-lives (t1/2) of diazinon were found 29.3 and 34.8 days respectively in seed and soil treatments. In diazinon seed treatment, NH4(+), NO3(-), and NO2(-) nitrogen and nitrate reductase activity were not affected. Whereas, diazinon soil treatment indicated significant increase in NH4(+)-N in a 1-day sample, which continued until 90 days. Some declines in NO3(-)N were found from 15 to 60 days. Along with this decline, significant increases in NO2(-)N and nitrate reductase activity were found between 1 and 30 days. Imidacloprid and lindane persisted for 90 and 120 days with average half-lives (t1/2) of 40.9 and 53.3 days, respectively. Within 90 days, imidacloprid residues lost by 73.17% to 82.49% while such losses for lindane residues were found 78.19% to 79.86 % within 120 days. In imidacloprid seed-treated field, stimulation of NO3(-)N and the decline in NH4+NO2(-)-N and nitrate reductase enzyme activity were observed between 15 to 90 days. However, lindane seed treatment indicated significant increases in NH4(+)-N, NO2(-)-N and nitrate reductase activity and some adverse effects on NO3(-)N between 15 and 90 days.     

Fate of citalopram during water treatment with O3, ClO2, UV and Fenton oxidation

In the present study we investigate the fate of citalopram (CIT) at neutral pH using advanced water treatment technologies that include O₃, ClO₂ oxidation, UV irradiation and Fenton oxidation. The ozonation resulted in 80% reduction after 30 min treatment. Oxidation with ClO₂ removed >90% CIT at a dosage of 0.1 mg L⁻¹. During UV irradiation 85% reduction was achieved after 5 min, while Fenton with addition of 14 mg L⁻¹ (Fe²⁺) resulted in 90% reduction of CIT. During these treatment experiments transformation products (TPs) were formed from CIT, where five compounds were identified by using high resolution and tandem mass spectrometry. Among these desmethyl-citalopram and citalopram N-oxide have been previously identified as human metabolites, while three are novel and published here for the first time. The three TPs are a hydroxylated dimethylamino-side chain derivative, a butyrolactone derivative and a defluorinated derivative of CIT.     

The influence of lindane and lindane metabolites on microsomal and mitochondrial ATPase in vitro

In vitro investigations of the influence of lindane and its metabolites were performed on microsomal and mitochondrial ATPases from liver, kidney and brain of rat and mouse. The microsomal Na+-K+-ATPases in rat liver were inhibited by the tested substances. An increase of activity was observed only with 2.5 X 10(-5) M gamma-HCH. Effects on the microsomal Na+-K+-ATPase from kidney and brain of rat were also indicated. The mitochondrial enzyme in rat liver was stimulated by all the compounds tested at concentrations of 10(-4) M - 10(-2) M. The effects on mitochondrial enzymes from kidney and brain varied in dependence on the tested substances. In the microsomes and mitochondria of mouse an influence on the Na+-K+-ATPases similar to the effects on the preparations from organs of rat was evident.     

Sorption and desorption of lindane by wood charcoal in fixed‐bed reactor

Abstract

Sorption and desorption of lindane (y‐HCH) by wood charcoal (WC) and wood charcoal treated by 1N HNO₃ (WCT) in fixed‐bed reactor (FBR) were investigated in this study. WCT revealed a better performance than WC, in removing lindane in FBR. The breakthrough of lindane was significantly affected by the size of WCT, flow rate to the FBR, and depth of WCT bed. The removal of lindane in the presence of mixture of other pesticides was considerably reduced. The design parameters for FBR were calculated based on the bed‐depth service time (BDST) approach. Many parameters Viz. depth of sorption zone, velocity of sorption, sorbent use rate, critical bed‐depth, bed efficiency, and service time, were determined for design of the fixed‐bed. Using the material balance principle, the characteristics of the wave‐front were evaluated and found that the wave‐front velocity is approximately equal to the sorption velocity determined from the BDST approach. Desorption studies were performed in dilute organic solvent media and they gave an excellent performance in regeneration process.