The levels, sources and reactivity of volatile organic compounds in a typical urban area of Northeast China

Air concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were continually measured at a monitoring site in Shenyang from 20 August to 16 September 2017. The average concentrations of alkanes, alkenes, aromatics and carbonyls were 28.54, 6.30, 5.59 and 9.78 ppbv, respectively. Seven sources were identified by the Positive Matrix Factorization model based on the measurement data of VOCs and CO. Vehicle exhaust contributed the most (36.15%) to the total propene-equivalent concentration of the measured VOCs, followed by combustion emission (16.92%), vegetation emission and secondary formation (14.33%), solvent usage (10.59%), petrochemical industry emission (9.89%), petrol evaporation (6.28%), and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) usage (5.84%). Vehicle exhaust, solvent usage and combustion emission were found to be the top three VOC sources for O₃ formation potential, accounting for 34.52%, 16.55% and 11.94%, respectively. The diurnal variation of the total VOCs from each source could be well explained by their emission characteristics, e.g., the two peaks of VOC concentrations from LPG usage were in line with the cooking times for breakfast and lunch. Wind rose plots of the VOCs from each source could reveal the possible distribution of the sources around the monitoring site. The O₃ pollution episodes during the measurement period were found to be coincident with the elevation of VOCs, which was mainly due to the air parcel from the southeast direction where petrochemical industry emission was found to be dominant, suggesting that the petrochemical industry emission from the southeast was probably a significant cause of O₃ pollution in Shenyang.     

南宁市冬季挥发性有机物特征及其来源分析

为了解南宁市冬季期间挥发性有机物（VOCs）污染特征及来源,采用在线连续监测系统于2020年12月9日~2021年2月22日在南宁市区对116种VOCs进行了在线连续观测.结果显示,观测期间VOCs体积分数为37.57x10^-9,烷烃、烯烃、芳香烃、OVOCs及卤代烃体积分数占VOCs比例分别为44%、15%、8%、19%和11%.VOCs体积分数白天低,夜晚高;采用OH消耗速率（L_OH）和臭氧生成潜势（OFP）估算了观测期间VOCs大气化学反应活性,结果表明醛酮类、芳香烃和烯烃是主要的活性物质;使用气溶胶生成系数法（FAC）估算了VOCs对二次有机气溶胶（SOA）的贡献,发现芳香烃对SOA生成贡献最大,占比为98%,其中苯、间/对二甲苯和甲苯为优势物种;正交矩阵因子（PMF）解析结果表明,冬季期间南宁市VOCs主要来源于：机动车尾气排放源（30.1%）>固定燃烧及生物质燃烧源（22.2%）>工业工艺排放源（16.8%）,而OFP贡献较高的源分别为溶剂使用源（23.9%）、固定燃烧及生物质燃烧源（22%）、机动车尾气排放源（21.8%）.因此,机动车尾气排放源和固定燃烧及生物质燃烧源应为南宁市冬季的优先管控源类,其次为工业工艺排放源、溶剂使用源.     

VOC emission caps constrained by air quality targets based on response surface model: A case study in the Pearl River Delta Region, China

Because of the recent growth in ground-level ozone and increased emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), VOC emission control has become a major concern in China. In response, emission caps to control VOC have been stipulated in recent policies, but few of them were constrained by the co-control target of PM_2.5 and ozone, and discussed the factor that influence the emission cap formulation. Herein, we proposed a framework for quantification of VOC emission caps constrained by targets for PM_2.5 and ozone via a new response surface modeling (RSM) technique, achieving 50% computational cost savings of the quantification. In the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region, the VOC emission caps constrained by air quality targets varied greatly with the NO_x emission reduction level. If control measures in the surrounding areas of the PRD region were not considered, there could be two feasible strategies for VOC emission caps to meet air quality targets (160 µg/m³ for the maximum 8-hr-average 90th-percentile (MDA8-90%) ozone and 25 µg/m³ for the annual average of PM_2.5): a moderate VOC emission cap with <20% NOx emission reductions or a notable VOC emission cap with >60% NO_x emission reductions. If the ozone concentration target were reduced to 155 µg/m³, deep NO_x emission reductions is the only feasible ozone control measure in PRD. Optimization of seasonal VOC emission caps based on the Monte Carlo simulation could allow us to gain higher ozone benefits or greater VOC emission reductions. If VOC emissions were further reduced in autumn, MDA8-90% ozone could be lowered by 0.3-1.5 µg/m³, equaling the ozone benefits of 10% VOC emission reduction measures. The method for VOC emission cap quantification and optimization proposed in this study could provide scientific guidance for coordinated control of regional PM_2.5 and O₃ pollution in China.     

Simulated reaction of formaldehyde and ambient atmospheric particulate matter using a chamber

The reaction of HCHO with Beijing winter's real ambient particulate matter(PM) inside a 3.3 m~3 Teflon Chamber was conducted in this study. NO_2, O_3 and H_2O gases were removed from the ambient aerosol before entering into the chamber. The decays of HCHO were monitored(acetylacetone spectrophotometry method) during the reactions at different PM number concentrations(N_a) and relative humidities(RHs), and the formed particulate formate was detected by IC and XPS techniques. The results showed that when RH was10%–15%, the decay rate of HCHO in the chamber was higher with the existence of PM from relatively clean days(with number concentration(N_a) 200,000 particle/L, 0.35–22.5 μm)compared to dirty days(N_a 200,000 particle/L, 0.35–22.5 μm). When RH increased to 30%–45%, PM can hardly have significant influences on the decay of HCHO. The formations of formate on the reacted PM were consistent with the HCHO decay rates at different ambient PM N_aand RH conditions. This is a first study related to the "real" ambient PM reacted with HCHO and suggested that in the clean and low RH days, PM could be an effective medium for the conversion of HCHO to formate.     

广州市某些室内公共场所中挥发性有机物的研究

调查了广州市人流较大的餐厅、歌舞厅中挥发性有机物(VOCs)的污染状况，经过采样分析，所有样品中共定性检测出了46种化合物，其中11种属于美国环保署优先控制污染物。大部分样品的挥发性有机物总浓度(TVOCs)处于我国室内环境质量评价试行标准二级范围内，两个新近装修的室内挥发性有机物浓度超过了试行标准的三级，对人体有一定的危害。     

Volatile organic compounds in wintertime North China Plain: Insights from measurements of proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS)

The characteristics of wintertime volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the North China Plain (NCP) region are complicated and remain obscure. VOC measurements were conducted by a proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS) at a rural site in the NCP from November to December 2018. Uncalibrated ions measured by PTR-ToF-MS were quantified and the overall VOC compositions were investigated by combining the measurements of PTR-ToF-MS and gas chromatography-mass spectrometer/flame ionization detector (GC-MS/FID). The measurement showed that although atmospheric VOCs concentrations are often dominated by primary emissions, the secondary formation of oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs) is non-negligible in the wintertime, i.e., OVOCs accounts for 42% ± 7% in the total VOCs (151.3 ± 75.6 ppbV). We demonstrated that PTR-MS measurements for isoprene are substantially overestimated due to the interferences of cycloalkanes. The chemical changes of organic carbon in a pollution accumulation period were investigated, which suggests an essential role of fragmentation reactions for large, chemically reduced compounds during the heavy-polluted stage in wintertime pollution. The changes of emission ratios of VOCs between winter 2011 and winter 2018 in the NCP support the positive effect of “coal to gas” strategies in curbing air pollutants. The high abundances of some key species (e.g. oxygenated aromatics) indicate the strong emissions of coal combustion in wintertime of NCP. The ratio of naphthalene to C8 aromatics was proposed as a potential indicator of the influence of coal combustion on VOCs.     

中国工业源挥发性有机物排放清单

以工业源挥发性有机物(VOCs)为研究对象,在前期建立的工业源典型污染源分类系统基础上,对污染源系统和重要污染源排放系数进行修正和更新,采用排放系数法建立了2018年我国工业源VOCs排放清单.结果表明, 2018年我国工业源VOCs排放量为12 698 kt.含VOCs产品的使用环节贡献最大,占工业源排放总量的59%.工业涂装、印刷和包装印刷、基础化学原料制造、汽油储存与运输和石油炼制是排放量贡献最大的5大污染源,占工业源排放总量的54%;广东、山东、浙江和江苏是工业VOCs贡献最大的4个省份,排放总量占工业源VOCs总量的41%.海南、宁夏、西藏、黑龙江和新疆这5个省单位工业增加值VOCs排放强度最大,均超过了80 t·(亿元)^-1.大多数省份工业VOCs排放主要来自含VOCs产品的使用环节;采用Monte Carlo模拟2018年我国工业源VOCs排放清单95%置信区间不确定度为[-32%, 48%].     

北大园区室内挥发性有机物(VOCs)的研究

1997年3~5月,对北京大学校园区内多处师生住所及公共场所室内空气中的挥发性有机物(VOCs)进行了调查研究。结果表明,大多数房屋内总VOCs浓度在220~2000μg/m3范围内;通风条件、季节变化、人为活动对室内VOCs浓度水平起着重要影响。室外空气质量也直接影响着室内VOCs浓度高低:室内多种芳香烃和烷烃主要来自于室外汽车尾气的排放,其贡献率为76%~92%。      

华北火电厂脱硫对奥运期间区域空气质量的影响

采用MM5-CMAQ模式系统模拟研究了2006—2008年间华北火电厂脱硫工程实施对奥运期间区域空气质量的影响,并对比研究了脱硫前后华北地区二氧化硫(SO2)、硫酸盐气溶胶(ASO4)浓度及能见度的变化.结果表明,华北火电厂脱硫可有效削减区域SO2和ASO4浓度,在奥运气象条件下,脱硫促使京津冀、山东北部、山西东部、内蒙河套地区SO2浓度下降1~10 ppbv,而大部分地区ASO4浓度下降约1μg·m-3.北京是SO2浓度降低最明显的地区,其SO2浓度下降百分比超过50%;太行山脉沿线、泰山地区是ASO4浓度下降最明显的地区,浓度降低达2μg·m-3.火电厂脱硫同时促使北京、河北大部、山西北部及内蒙南部地区的能见度上升0.5 km以上.     

中国生活源挥发性有机物排放清单

生活源已成为重要的挥发性有机物(VOCs)人为排放源之一.构建了系统的中国生活源VOCs排放源分类方法和核算体系,在此基础上建立了2010～2018年中国生活源VOCs排放清单,并对生活源VOCs排放重要源类和省份等进行识别,最后对生活源VOCs控制提出了对策建议.结果表明,2018年中国生活源VOCs排放量为2 518 kt.建筑装饰、沥青道路铺装、餐饮油烟和农村家用生物质使用是贡献最大的4类源,合计占比69.22%.家庭日化用品使用和居民生活和商业煤炭使用贡献相当,占比分别为10.43%和9.98%.此外,汽车修补也有一定的贡献,占比为7.75%.山东、四川、河南、广东、江苏和河北是VOCs排放贡献最大的6个省份,合计占生活源VOCs排放总量的36.01%. 2010～2018年期间,中国生活源VOCs排放先以0.43%的速度增加,2013年达到峰值排放后开始下降,下降速度为2.23%.下降原因一方面与居民生活用能的清洁化,以及北方地区大力推进清洁取暖使生活煤炭、生物质消耗逐步减少等有关,另一方面与该阶段部分地区房屋建设逐步趋于饱和导致全国年房屋竣工面积减少有一定贡献.建议全面深入...     

上海市城区春节和“五一”节期间大气挥发性有机物的组成特征

挥发性有机物(VOCs)是对流层臭氧和二次有机气溶胶等二次污染生成过程的关键前体物.研究VOCs的浓度水平、组成特征和反应活性对揭示复合型大气污染的形成机制具有重要意义.本研究利用在线气相-氢离子火焰法测量了2009年春节和"五一"节期间上海市城区大气中56种VOCs.结果表明,上海市城区大气受机动车尾气排放源影响明显,VOCs浓度日变化特征呈双峰状,与上下班交通高峰基本吻合.大气中VOCs平均体积分数为(28.39±18.35)×10-9;各组分百分含量依次为:烷烃46.6%,芳香烃27.0%,烯烃15.1%,乙炔11.2%.用OH消耗速率和臭氧生成潜势(OFP)评估了VOCs大气化学反应活性,结果表明,上海市城区大气VOCs化学反应活性与VOCs体积浓度相关性良好;VOCs活性与乙烯相当,平均化学反应活性较强;OH消耗速率贡献最大的物种是烯烃51.2%和芳香烃31.8%;OFP贡献最大的物种是芳香烃53.4%和烯烃30.2%;对臭氧生成贡献最大的关键活性物种为丙烯、乙烯、甲苯、二甲苯以及丁烯类物质.     

2011~2019年中国工业源挥发性有机物排放特征

为阐明近年来我国工业源挥发性有机物（volatile organic compounds,VOCs）排放特征,对排放源分类体系进行完善并采用动态排放因子法,建立了2011~2019年中国工业源VOCs排放清单.结果表明,全国工业源VOCs排放量从2011年11122.7 kt增长到2017年13397.9 kt,而后增长势头得到遏制并略有下降,到2019年下降至13247.0 kt.4个环节的排放结构发生改变,基础化学原料制造、汽油储运、涂料、油墨、颜料及类似产品和工业防护涂料涂装等排放源对相应环节的排放贡献不断上升,相反汽车、集装箱制造与石油和天然气加工等行业排放贡献有所下降.2019年全国工业源VOCs排放中,工业涂装、印刷和基础化学原料制造排放量大（共占总量的39.2%）,且近9年排放占比不断增加,是今后需关注的重点排放源;空间上,华东和华南地区VOCs排放最多,山东、广东、江苏和浙江是贡献最大的4个省份,合计占总量的40.6%.     

Source apportionment of VOCs in a typical medium-sized city in North China Plain and implications on control policy

Characteristics of atmospheric VOCs (volatile organic compounds) have been extensively studied in megacities in China, however, they are scarcely investigated in medium/small-sized cities in North China Plain (NCP). A comprehensive research on possible sources of VOCs was conducted in a medium-sized city of NCP, from May to September 2019. A total of 143 canister samples of 8 sites in Xuchang city were collected, and 57 VOC species were detected. The average VOC concentrations were 42.6 ± 31.6 μg/m³, with 53.7 ± 31.0 μg/m³ and 32.1 ± 27. 8 μg/m³, in the morning and afternoon, respectively. Alkenes and aromatics contributed 80% of the total ozone formation potential (OFP). Aromatics accounted for more than 95% of secondary organic aerosol potential (SOAP). VOCs were dominated by the local emission with significant transport from the southeast direction. PMF analysis extracted 6 sources, which were combustion (33.1%), LPG usage (19.3%), vehicular exhaust & fuel evaporation (15.8%), solvent usage (15.2%), industrial (9.11%) and biogenic (7.51%), respectively and they contributed 33.4%, 17.6%, 12.9%, 18.6%, 9.28% and 8.22% to the OFP, respectively. Combustion and LPG usage were the dominant VOC sources; and combustion, solvent usage and LPG usage were the main sources of OFP in Xuchang city, which were different to megacities in China with a high contribution from vehicular exhaust, solvent usage and industry, suggesting specific control strategies on VOCs need to be implemented in medium-sized city such as Xuchang city.     

Modeling of air quality with a modified two-dimensional Eulerian model： A case study in the Pearl River Delta （PRD） region of China

A modified two-dimensional Eulerian air quality model was used to simulate both the gaseous and particulate pollutant concentrations during October 21-24, 2004 in the Pearl River Delta （PRD） region, China. The most significant improvement to the model is the added capability to predict the secondary organic aerosols （SOA） concentrations because of the inclusion of the SOA formation chemistry. The meteorological input data were prepared using the CALMET meteorological model. The concentrations of aerosol-bound species such as NO3^-, NH4^＋, SO4^2-, and SOA were calculated in the fine particle size range （〈2.5 μm）. The results of the two-dimensional model were compared to the measurements at the ground level during the PRD Intensive Monitoring Campaign （IMC）. Overall, there were good agreements between the measured and modeled concentrations of inorganic aerosol components and O3. Both the measured and the modeled results indicated that the maximum hourly O3 concentrations exceeded the China National Air Quality Standard. The predicted 24-h average SOA concentrations were in reasonable agreement with those predicted by the method of minimum OC/EC ratio.     

Modeling study on the roles of the deposition and transport of PM2.5 in air quality changes over central-eastern China

The role of PM_2.5 (particles with aerodynamic diameters ≤ 2.5 µm) deposition in air quality changes over China remains unclear. By using the three-year (2013, 2015, and 2017) simulation results of the WRF/CUACE v1.0 model from a previous work (Zhang et al., 2021), a non-linear relationship between the deposition of PM_2.5 and anthropogenic emissions over central-eastern China in cold seasons as well as in different life stages of haze events was unraveled. PM_2.5 deposition is spatially distributed differently from PM_2.5 concentrations and anthropogenic emissions over China. The North China Plain (NCP) is typically characterized by higher anthropogenic emissions compared to southern China, such as the middle-low reaches of Yangtze River (MLYR), which includes parts of the Yangtze River Delta and the Midwest. However, PM_2.5 deposition in the NCP is significantly lower than that in the MLYR region, suggesting that in addition to meteorology and emissions, lower deposition is another important factor in the increase in haze levels. Regional transport of pollution in central-eastern China acts as a moderator of pollution levels in different regions, for example by bringing pollution from the NCP to the MLYR region in cold seasons. It was found that in typical haze events the deposition flux of PM_2.5 during the removal stages is substantially higher than that in accumulation stages, with most of the PM_2.5 being transported southward and deposited to the MLYR and Sichuan Basin region, corresponding to a latitude range of about 24°N-31°N.     

Recent development of a refined multiple air pollutant emission inventory of vehicles in the Central Plains of China

Central Plains region of China,represented by Henan Province,is facing serious air pollution problems.Vehicular exhaust emissions had adverse impacts on the atmospheric environment.The first comprehensive and novel vehicle emission inventory for Henan Province using vehicle kilometers traveled,localized emission factors,and activity data at city-level was developed.Furthermore,3 km×3 km gridded emission and temporal variations were determined by using localized information.Results show that the total emissions of sulfur dioxide(SO_2),nitrogen oxides(NOx),carbon monoxide(CO),particular matter with aerodynamic diameter10μm(PM_(10)),aerodynamic diameter2.5μm(PM_(2.5)),volatile organic compounds(VOCs),VOCs-evaporation and ammonia in 2015 were 9.1,533.4,1190.7,23.7,21.6,150.8,31.5 and 10.4 Gg,respectively,and the emission intensities of the above pollutants were 0.05,2.7,6.0,0.1,0.1,0.8,0.2 and 0.05 g/km,respectively.Vehicles meeting the Primary China 1,China 3 and China 4 contributed 89.1%,82.7%,75.3%,75.5%,75.5%,68.2%,68.4%and 82.3%for SO_2,NO_x,CO,PM_(10),PM_(2.5),VOCs,VOCs-evaporation and ammonia emissions,respectively.Zhengzhou,Zhoukou,Nanyang,Luoyang,Shangqiu and Xinyang showed relatively higher emissions and contributed more than 50%of each pollutant.The spatial distribution indicated obvious characteristics of the road network,and high-level emission was concentrated in the downtown areas.Additionally,the ozone formation potential(OFP)based on the estimated speciated VOC emissions was 569.6 Gg in Henan Province.Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons were the main species of VOCs,whereas olefins contributed the largest proportion of OFP,with 42.2%.     

我国VOCs的排放特征及控制对策研究

挥发性有机物(volatile organic compounds,VOCs)是一类具有刺激性、致畸、致癌、致突变作用、易燃易爆的有机物,对人体和生态系统健康有很大危害.本文从工业固定源、机动车尾气排放源和日常生活源等角度分析不同排放源的VOCs排放特征,绘制并分析了我国重点区域重点行业VOCs排放的空间分布格局,甄别出东部沿海地区VOCs 2010年总量和单位面积均高于中西部地区,且工业产生源有明显差异.进一步归类分析了欧美等发达国家针对VOCs排放控制的政策法规,对比分析我国目前治理VOCs的有关法规和标准,提出了现阶段我国VOCs管理存在的问题,并提出了相应的控制对策建议.     

Compositions and sources of organic acids in fine particles (PM2.5) over the Pearl River Delta region, south China

Organic acids as important constituents of organic aerosols not only influence the aerosols' hygroscopic property, but also enhance the formation of new particles and secondary organic aerosols. This study reported organic acids including C14–C32fatty acids, C4–C9dicarboxylic acids and aromatic acids in PM2.5collected during winter 2009 at six typical urban, suburban and rural sites in the Pearl River Delta region. Averaged concentrations of C14–C32fatty acids, aromatic acids and C4– C9 dicarboxylic acids were 157, 72.5 and 50.7 ng/m3, respectively. They totally accounted for 1.7% of measured organic carbon. C20–C32fatty acids mainly deriving from higher plant wax showed the highest concentration at the upwind rural site with more vegetation around, while C14–C18fatty acids were more abundant at urban and suburban sites, and dicarboxylic acids and aromatic acids except 1,4-phthalic acid peaked at the downwind rural site. Succinic and azelaic acid were the most abundant among C4–C9dicarboxylic acids, and 1,2-phthalic and 1,4-phthalic acid were dominant aromatic acids. Dicarboxylic acids and aromatic acids exhibited significant mutual correlations except for 1,4-phthalic acid, which was probably primarily emitted from combustion of solid wastes containing polyethylene terephthalate plastics. Spatial patterns and correlations with typical source tracers suggested that C14–C32fatty acids were mainly primary while dicarboxylic and aromatic acids were largely secondary. Principal component analysis resolved six sources including biomass burning, natural higher plant wax, two mixed anthropogenic and two secondary sources; further multiple linear regression revealed their contributions to individual organic acids. It turned out that more than 70% of C14–C18fatty acids were attributed to anthropogenic sources, about 50%–85% of the C20–C32fatty acids were attributed to natural sources, 80%–95% of dicarboxylic acids and 1,2-phthalic acid were secondary in contrast with that 81% of 1,4-phthalic acid was primary.     

Characteristics of ozone and ozone precursors (VOCs and NOx) around a petroleum refinery in Beijing, China

A field measurement campaign for ozone and ozone precursors(VOCs and NOx) was conducted in summer 2011 around a petroleum refinery in the Beijing rural region. Three observation sites were arranged, one at southwest of the refinery as the background, and two at northeast of the refinery as the downwind receptors. Monitoring data revealed the presence of serious surface O3 pollution with the characteristics of high average daily mean and maximum concentrations(64.0 and 145.4 ppbV in no-rain days, respectively) and multi-peak diurnal variation. For NOx, the average hourly concentrations of NO2 and NO were in the range of 20.5–46.1 and 1.8–6.4 ppbV, respectively. For VOC measurement, a total of 51 compounds were detected. Normally, TVOCs at the background site was only dozens of ppbC, while TVOCs at the downwind sites reached several hundreds of ppbC. By subtracting the VOC concentrations at background, chemical profiles of VOC emission from the refinery were obtained, mainly including alkanes(60.0% ± 4.3%), alkenes(21.1% ± 5.5%) and aromatics(18.9% ± 3.9%). Moreover, some differences in chemical profiles for the same measurement hours were observed between the downwind sites; the volume ratios of alkanes with low reactivity and those of alkenes with high reactivity respectively showed an increasing trend and a decreasing trend. Finally, based on temporal and spatial variations of VOC mixing ratios, their photochemical degradations and dispersion degradations were estimated to be 0.15–0.27 and 0.42–0.62, respectively, by the photochemical age calculation method, indicating stronger photochemical reactions around the refinery.     

Chemical speciation and anthropogenic sources of ambient volatile organic compounds(VOCs)during summer in Beijing,2004

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured at six sites in Beijing in August, 2004. Up to 148 VOC species, including C₃ to C₁₂ alkanes, C₃ to C₁₁ alkenes, C₆ to C₁₂ aromatics, and halogenated hydrocarbons, were quantified. Although the concentrations differed at the sites, the chemical compositions were similar, except for the Tongzhou site where aromatics were significantly high in the air. Based on the source profiles measured from previous studies, the source apportionment of ambient VOCs was preformed by deploying the chemical mass balance (CMB) model. The results show that urban VOCs are predominant from mobile source emissions, which contribute more than 50% of the VOCs (in mass concentrations) to ambient air at most sites. Other important sources are gasoline evaporation, painting, and solvents. The exception is at the Tongzhou site where vehicle exhaust, painting, and solvents have about equal contribution, around 35% of the ambient VOC concentration. As the receptor model is not valid for deriving the sources of reactive species, such as isoprene and 1,3-butadiene, other methodologies need to be further explored.