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1.
In mammalian polygynous mating systems, male reproductive effort consists mainly of male–male competition and courting of
females, which entail substantial somatic costs. Males are thus expected to adjust their reproductive effort according to
their age and condition. In this study, we examined how activity budgets of male mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), a polygynous ungulate, varied with age in a marked population over two periods: (1) summers 1995–2006 and (2) ruts 2004–2006.
We then assessed if the proportions of time spent in male–male competition and courtship behaviors were influenced by age-specific
body mass and social rank during the rut. Males spent most of their time foraging and resting during summer, and rested more
and foraged less with increasing age. During the rut, pronounced shifts in activity budgets occurred as juveniles (1–2 years)
increased time spent foraging, whereas adults (≥3 years) increased standing and time spent in social interactions at the expense
of foraging. At old age, reproductive effort either stabilized or decreased slightly, providing weak support for the ‘mating
strategy–effort’ hypothesis, predicting that courtship behaviors should peak in prime-aged males. Age-specific body mass did
not affect time spent in male–male competition, but was positively related with time spent in courtship behaviors, providing
support for the ‘individual quality’ hypothesis, predicting that males with more resources at the start of the rut should
spend more time in mating-related activities. Age-specific social rank did not affect reproductive effort. Surviving to prime
age while increasing mass each year should thus allow male ungulates to gain greater ability to court estrus females. 相似文献
2.
Thomas Artiss Wesley M. Hochachka Kathy Martin 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1999,46(6):429-434
For several species of birds, high rates of male vigilance are correlated with high rates of female foraging. This relationship
is thought to ultimately result in higher reproductive success for females paired with highly vigilant males. However, previous
research has not examined the behavioural mechanism that produces the correlation between male vigilance and rates of female
foraging. Foraging females may take advantage of vigilance that males are using for other purposes. Alternatively, the purpose
of male vigilance may be to increase females' ability to forage. We examined these alternatives by testing whether vigilance
preceded or followed bouts of female foraging more often than would occur by chance alone, using simultaneous behaviour observations
of pre-incubation pairs of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus). Our results indicate that each member of a pair may influence the behaviour of the other. Females were more likely to initiate
foraging bouts after males became vigilant than if their mate remained non-vigilant. Moreover, non-vigilant males were more
likely to become vigilant if their mate was foraging than if she was engaged in some other activity. Despite the possibility
that a sexual conflict exists as each member of a pair attempts to maximize its fitness, both sexes behave as though a major
role of male vigilance is to enhance female foraging opportunities.
Received: 3 May 1999 / Received in revised form: 14 June 1999 / Accepted: 16 June 1999 相似文献
3.
Aliza le Roux Michael I. Cherry Lorenz Gygax Marta B. Manser 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2009,63(8):1097-1107
Vigilance behaviour in gregarious species has been studied extensively, especially the relationship between individual vigilance
and group size, which is often negative. Relatively little is known about the effect of conspecifics on vigilance in non-obligate
social species or the influence of sociality itself on antipredator tactics. We investigated predator avoidance behaviour
in the yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata, a group-living solitary forager, and compared it with a sympatric group-living, group-foraging herpestid, the meerkat, Suricata suricatta. In yellow mongooses, the presence of conspecifics during foraging—an infrequent occurrence—reduced their foraging time and
success and increased individual vigilance, contrary to the classical group-size effect. Comparing the two herpestids, sociality
did not appear to affect overt vigilance or survival rates but influenced general patterns of predator avoidance. Whereas
meerkats relied on communal vigilance, costly vigilance postures, and auditory warnings against danger, yellow mongooses avoided
predator detection by remaining close to safe refuges and increasing “low-cost” vigilance, which did not interfere with foraging.
We suggest that foraging group size in herpestids is constrained by species-distinct vigilance patterns, in addition to habitat
and prey preference. 相似文献
4.
A complex interaction of biotic and abiotic factors influences animal foraging activity. It is often difficult to understand
which factors may affect animals’ foraging and how it is affected. For instance, whereas the effect of sexual dimorphism on
foraging activity has been reported in several species, little is known of the complex interactions between variables acting
at a finer scale, e.g. the variability of body mass within a sex. Evaluating the importance of these finer scale factors is
also essential to the understanding of foraging behaviour. We propose here a simple approach by applying principal component
analysis (PCA) in a novel way to examine relationships between biotic and abiotic factors affecting foraging behaviour of
top predators. We studied female little penguins (Eudyptula minor) of known age, carrying miniature accelerometers during the guard stage of breeding. Surprisingly, the body mass of the females
did not influence any of the foraging parameters, but females foraging later in the breeding season dived shallower and more
often, showing a strong correlation with laying date. Similarly, the diving effort of females was greater with increasing
chick age within the same breeding stage. These results indicate that for female little penguin, the relationship between
changes in prey availability and hunting effort can change at a fine scale, within a breeding stage. Therefore, any analysis
of little penguin foraging behaviour during breeding should consider the timing in relation to the breeding season. We encourage
researchers to develop the use of this PCA approach as it could help clarify the complexity of the underlying mechanisms determining
foraging activity and we propose that it should be used as a first step of foraging behaviour analysis, before examining a
particular relationship. 相似文献
5.
Time budgets and foraging in a Malagasy primate: do sex differences reflect reproductive condition and female dominance? 总被引:5,自引:0,他引:5
Claire A. Hemingway 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1999,45(3-4):311-322
Female mammals commonly employ behavioral tactics of modulating activity levels and foraging behavior to counter the energetic
burden of reproduction; these behavioral changes are reflected as intersexual differences. Traditional views of Malagasy primates
posit that high reproductive costs select for female dominance which guarantees to energetically stressed females priority
of resource access. I tested predictions regarding reproductive influences on sex differences in time budgets and foraging
behavior using two groups of Milne-Edwards' sifaka (Propithecus diadema edwardsi) in southeastern Madagascar. Compared to males, females increased neither feeding nor resting time during gestation or lactation.
Sex differences were essentially absent in all foraging time variables examined (time, duration, rate). In contrast, dietary
composition diverged between the sexes in some months. The possibility that females selected particular food items to boost
nutrient and energetic intake to meet increased requirements during reproduction must be further clarified with nutritional
analyses. Sex differences in plant part choices coincided with lactation in one of the two study groups. Thus, the timing
of sex differences in feeding patterns of P. d. edwardsi only partially supports the prediction that sex differences are most pronounced during the period of greatest female energetic
demand. A comparative review indicated no tight association between female dominance and sex differences in foraging among
Malagasy primates. Traditional female dominance theory falls short of explaining the observed patterns. The results of my
study coupled with recent evidence suggest that non-behavioral tactics involving energy conservation and storage require further
attention as mechanisms by which female lemurs cope with reproductive costs.
Received: 12 June 1998 / Accepted after revision: 10 October 1998 相似文献
6.
Studies of the otariids (fur seals and sea lions), a highly sexually dimorphic group, have provided conflicting evidence of
differential maternal expenditure in male and female offspring and, thus, suggestions that they conform to predictions of
investment theory are equivocal. Since the mid-1970s, a diversity of research on Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) including studies of their reproductive ecology, lactation energetics, and foraging behaviour have been conducted at Bird
Island, South Georgia that have resulted in one of the more complete and diverse data sets for any species of otariid. These
long-term data were reviewed to determine whether there was any evidence to support that differential maternal expenditure
occurred in Antarctic fur seals. Most of the data examined were collected during five consecutive austral summers from 1988
through 1992 and included years in which local food resources were abundant and scarce. We were unable to detect differences
in the sex ratios of pups at birth or sex-biased differences in growth rates estimated from serial data, the number of foraging
trips made, the duration of attendance ashore, diving behaviour, suckling behaviour, or milk consumption in any year and in
the duration of foraging trips or age at weaning in 2 of 3 years. In addition, we found no evidence of greater reproductive
costs between mothers with sons or daughters relative to their reproductive performance the following year. In contrast, sex-biased
differences were only found in the duration of foraging trips in 1990, the age at weaning in 1988, and consistently in growth
rates estimated from cross-sectional data. We suggest that differential maternal expenditure does not occur in Antarctic fur
seals because male pups probably do not gain greater benefit from additional maternal expenditure than female pups. After
weaning, males experience a period of rapid juvenile growth over 3–4 years during which time body mass nearly trebles. This
growth will almost certainly be dependent upon available food resources then rather than on any maternal expenditure received
over the first 4 months of life and, thus, the assumptions of the Trivers and Willard hypothesis are probably invalid for
Antarctic fur seals.
Received: 10 July 1996 / Accepted after revision: 3 March 1997 相似文献
7.
In this study, we investigate association patterns of 249 bottlenose dolphin feeding groups off Sardinia Island (Italy) from
January 2000–May 2007 and describe how their association behaviour is related to their response to food patches created by
a marine fin fish farm. We also tested the hypothesis that dolphins have different social structures with different feeding
activities: Associations should decrease during opportunistic feeding behaviours as it is easier to capture prey, and cooperation
is not as necessary. Sixteen individually identified bottlenose dolphins were observed participating in both opportunistic
and not opportunistic feeding activities, with a mean of 30 ± 8 times and 9.6 ± 1 times, respectively. Bottlenose dolphins
show non-random social behaviour during feeding and this behaviour differs depending on their specific foraging activity.
Dolphin associations during feeding can be divided into three categories: acquaintances, affiliates, and feeding associates.
Association behaviour during fish farm feeding is consistent with our hypothesis that during opportunistic behaviours, benefits
from cooperation decrease, as it is easier to capture prey. Group size homogeneity in both feeding activities demonstrates
that the number of dolphins engaging in foraging is not necessarily related with cooperation levels. Moreover, an adult dolphin
may prefer to associate with a specific individual, independent of the sex, who shares the same foraging priorities. This
study is the first to show how aquaculture is not only directly affecting marine predators but could also indirectly affect
their social structure and behaviour. 相似文献
8.
Palestina Guevara-Fiore Jessica Stapley Penelope J. Watt 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2010,64(10):1665-1672
Males vary in the degree to which they invest in mating. Several factors can explain this variation, including differences
in males’ individual condition and the fact that males allocate their energy depending on the context they face in each mating
attempt. Particularly, female quality affects male reproductive success. Here, we studied whether male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) strategically allocated more mating effort, in terms of mating behaviour and male–male competition, when they were matched
with a receptive (R) female than a non-receptive one. In accordance with our prediction, we found that males increased their
mating behaviour when they were with a receptive female. Even though male guppies can inseminate non-receptive females, we
only found high levels of courtship between males that were with a receptive female rather than a non-receptive one. Although
there was little affect of female receptivity on male–male competition, we found that males chased and interrupted courtships
more with receptive females than with non-receptive females regardless of odour. Finally, we also studied whether the sexual
pheromone produced by receptive female guppies is a cue that males use in order to increase their mating effort. We found
that males were more attracted to a female when they perceived the sexual pheromone, but only increased their mating and aggressive
behaviours when females showed receptive behaviour. This strategic increase in mating effort could result in higher male reproductive
success because mating attempts towards receptive females are likely to be less costly and males could have a greater probability
of fertilisation. 相似文献
9.
Frank Rosell Gry Gundersen Jean-François Le Galliard 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2008,62(10):1559-1568
Neighbour–stranger discrimination occurs when individuals respond with more aggression to strangers than to territorial neighbours—a
phenomenon termed the “dear enemy phenomenon” (DEP). We investigated the DEP with male and female root voles (Microtus oeconomus Pallas 1776) using field dyadic arena tests conducted in enclosures where we could test for the effects of familiarity (familiar
versus stranger), ownership (resident versus intruder status) and resource-holding potential (body mass) on territorial behaviours.
The results showed that males put more effort into territorial defence than females, and males could discriminate between
neighbours and strangers. In males, aggressiveness was influenced by a significant two-way interaction between treatment and
ownership. Male residents were more aggressive towards stranger intruders than towards neighbour intruders, while male intruders
were less aggressive towards stranger residents than towards neighbour residents. In females, neither treatment nor ownership
status had a significant effect on aggressiveness. Familiar males performed more social behaviours but less non-social behaviours
than stranger males. Furthermore, there was a clear dominance hierarchy between residents and intruders in stranger dyads,
with the male territory holders dominating the intruder in pairwise interactions. To our knowledge, these results demonstrate
for the first time DEP in a small mammal with a known pedigree and present the first evidence for “prior resident advantage”
in voles. We argue that both ownership status and familiarity status affect how much an individual invests in territory defence.
The benefits of neighbour–stranger discrimination for male root voles and the absence of neighbour–stranger discrimination
in female root voles are discussed. 相似文献
10.
Most social primates live in cohesive groups, so travel paths inevitably reflect compromise: decision processes of individuals
are obscured. The fission–fusion social organisation of the chimpanzee, however, allows an individual's movements to be investigated
independently. We followed 15 chimpanzees (eight male and seven female) through the relatively flat forest of Budongo, Uganda,
plotting the path of each individual over periods of 1–3 days. Chimpanzee movement was parsed into phases ending with halts
of more than 20 min, during which individuals fed, rested or engaged in social activities. Males, lactating or pregnant females
and sexually receptive females all travelled similar average distances between halts, at similar speeds and along similarly
direct beeline paths. Compared to lactating or pregnant females, males did travel for a significantly longer time each day
and halted more often, but the most striking sex differences appeared in the organisation of movement phases into a day's
path. After a halt, males tended to continue in the same direction as before. Lactating or pregnant females showed no such
strategy and often retraced the preceding phase, returning to previously visited food patches. We suggest that female chimpanzee
movements approximate an optimal solution to feeding requirements, whereas the paths of males allow integration of foraging
with territorial defence. The ‘continually moving forwards’ strategy of males enables them to monitor their territory boundaries—border
checking—whilst foraging, generally avoiding the explicit boundary patrols observed at other chimpanzee study sites. 相似文献
11.
Michael J. Young Leigh W. Simmons Jonathan P. Evans 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2010,64(6):915-925
Sexual selection can act through female choice and male–male competition. Although both processes can act simultaneously,
they are typically studied independently. Here, we adopt a more integrated approach to studying sexual selection by incorporating
measures of both processes using the western rainbowfish Melanotaenia australis, a freshwater fish endemic to northwestern Australia. We assessed male–male competition and female choice separately while
measuring the performance of individual males under both processes and used paternity analyses to estimate male reproductive
success. We then related the performance of males during each of these stages to their phenotype, which was described using
linear measures of size and color pattern traits, and spectrographic measures of the reflectance of color patches. We found
that female choice favored relatively large males and that these preferences were consistent within individual females and
repeatable between different females. Larger males were also more dominant in the competition trials and sired the majority
of offspring produced when females spawned. There was little evidence to suggest that sexual selection acted on male color
patterns either via female choice or male contest competition or during subsequent post-mating episodes of sexual selection.
We conclude, therefore, that male–male competition and female choice act concordantly to favor relatively large males and
that these patterns of mating success are reflected during post-mating episodes of sexual selection. 相似文献
12.
A prey-localization test allowed the observation of the foraging behaviour of Coscinasterias muricata in the presence of Mytilus edulis and the disruption of this behaviour following oil exposure. Asteroids were exposed to dilutions of water-accommodated fractions
(WAF) of Bass Strait stabilised crude oil (control, 2%, 10%). Effects of exposure (4 d) and depuration (20 d) were quantified
using circular statistical analyses. Observations suggested that disruption of behaviour might be concentration-dependent.
Control asteroids successfully located mussels during tests. A small proportion (3 of 16) of asteroids exposed to 2% WAF also
located the mussels, while asteroids exposed to 10% WAF did not. Following depuration, exposed asteroids recovered their chemoreception
capacities. It is concluded that (1) Coscinasterias muricata is able to locate prey mussels through chemoreception, (2) exposure to oil disrupts its foraging behaviour, and (3) the effect
is reversible.
Received: 4 March 1998 / Accepted: 25 November 1998 相似文献
13.
Katrin Brauch Keith Hodges Antje Engelhardt Kerstin Fuhrmann Eric Shaw Michael Heistermann 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2008,62(9):1453-1466
In a wide variety of species, male reproductive success is determined by contest for access to females. Among multi-male primate
groups, however, factors in addition to male competitive ability may also influence paternity outcome, although their exact
nature and force is still largely unclear. Here, we have investigated in a group of free-ranging Barbary macaques whether
paternity is determined on the pre- or postcopulatory level and how male competitive ability and female direct mate choice
during the female fertile phase are related to male reproductive success. Behavioural observations were combined with faecal
hormone analysis for timing of the fertile phase (13 cycles, 8 females) and genetic paternity analysis (n = 12). During the fertile phase, complete monopolisation of females did not occur. Females were consorted for only 49% of
observation time, and all females had ejaculatory copulations with several males. Thus, in all cases, paternity was determined
on the postcopulatory level. More than 80% of infants were sired by high-ranking males, and this reproductive skew was related
to both, male competitive ability and female direct mate choice as high-ranking males spent more time in consort with females
than low-ranking males, and females solicited copulations mainly from dominant males. As most ejaculatory copulations were
female-initiated, female direct mate choice appeared to have the highest impact on male reproductive success. However, female
preference was not directly translated into paternity, as fathers were not preferred over non-fathers in terms of solicitation,
consortship and mating behaviour. Collectively, our data show that in the Barbary macaque, both sexes significantly influence
male mating success, but that sperm of several males generally compete within the female reproductive tract and that therefore
paternity is determined by mechanisms operating at the postcopulatory level. 相似文献
14.
The grand skink, Oligosoma grande, is a diurnal rock-dwelling lizard from the tussock grasslands of Central Otago, New Zealand, whose diet includes a variety
of arthropods and fruit. We conducted a field experiment to examine the influence of prey distribution on foraging behavior
and spacing patterns. On sites where prey distribution was unaltered (control sites), males and females differed in diet and
foraging behavior. Most male feeding attempts were directed at large strong-flying insects, and males used a saltatory search
pattern that involved relatively infrequent moves of long duration. Females spent more effort catching small weak-flying insects
and visiting fruiting plants. Their search behavior involved frequent moves of short duration. The placement of meat-bait
on experimental sites led to a redistribution of large flies without influencing other prey types. Experimental females switched
foraging strategy by adopting a search pattern of relatively infrequent moves of long duration, increasing the frequency of
attempts to capture large prey, and reducing the importance of fruit in their diet. The experimental manipulation appeared
to influence space use. On control sites, both sexes had comparably sized home ranges. On experimental sites, male home ranges
were significantly larger than female home ranges.
Received: 3 November 1997 / Accepted after revision: 13 December 1998 相似文献
15.
The caterpillars of Eucheira socialis westwoodi cooperatively spin and maintain a hollow silken nest and an elaborate network of silken foraging trails on their host plant,
madrone (Arbutus spp.: Ericaceae). Nests typically contain several hundred larvae. Two populations are known to harbor a sex ratio distorter.
The primary sex ratio in these two populations for four generations has been exceedingly male biased (64–79% male). Lepidoptera
larvae are easily sexed using external morphology, allowing us to uniquely mark male and female larvae and to assemble larval
groups of particular sex ratios. We report here the results of experiments on sex-specific larval behavior and physiology
and the effect of colony sex ratio on individual behavior. We found that male larvae spent more time spinning silk on the
nest and less time feeding than female larvae. Males were the first to emerge from the nest and the first to venture out along
trails to feed. Male-biased nests had a significantly greater amount of silk deposited on their surfaces than female-biased
nests. In the field, male-biased nests produced heavier male and female pupae than female-biased nests. Male and female larvae
in 75% male nests became active earlier than males and females in other sex ratio treatments.
Received: 11 September 1998 / Received in revised form: 24 February 1999 / Accepted: 27 March 1999 相似文献
16.
The attractiveness of an individual (i.e. its ability to arouse interest in a potential mate) has important implications for
its reproductive success. However, attractiveness is not a fixed trait. Previous work has shown that male birds can adjust
the intensity of their courtship display in response to variation in female behaviour, but little is known about how males
adjust their behaviour during mate choice in response to social feedback about their own attractiveness independent of their
intrinsic quality. Such information may help to maximize the potential mating success of males. Here, we provide experimental
evidence that the amount of attention given by male zebra finches to females is dependent upon the manipulated attractiveness
of males. This demonstrates that, in this socially monogamous species of bird, attractiveness of males could be considered
to be a social construct, at least partially determined via social feedback from females. 相似文献
17.
Mating patterns and reproductive success in the bushy-tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea), as revealed by DNA fingerprinting 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
The mating patterns and reproductive success of the bushy-tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) were investigated over a 3-year period (1992–1994) using DNA fingerprinting. Paternity was determined by genetic analysis
of 58 juveniles of known maternity from 35 litters. Analysis of DNA fingerprints revealed that all offspring within a litter
were fathered by a single male; the statistical probability of detecting multiple males mating with a female was high, indicating
that multiple paternity would have been detected had it occurred. However, individual males did not father more than one litter
from a given female either within or between years. At least 75% of females and 57% of males successfully produced offspring
each year. The finding that all littermates are first-order relatives may contribute to the high level of female cooperation
in this species.
Received: 28 May 1997 / Accepted after revision: 22 March 1998 相似文献
18.
Sperm economy and limitation in spiny lobsters 总被引:5,自引:0,他引:5
Sperm limitation, when female fertilisation success is constrained by the supply of sperm, is generally perceived to be an
uncommon feature of reproduction in species which directly transfer gametes during copulation. Male size, previous copulations,
and the balance of expected reproductive return and future mating opportunity may, however, limit the amount of sperm males
transfer to females. We used laboratory experiments where mate size could be manipulated and its consequences on spermatophore
size and clutch size determined, to show that in two genera of spiny lobsters (Crustacea: Palinuridae) male reproductive output
limits the size of clutches brooded by females. In Panulirus argus from the Florida Keys, we show that while male size affects spermatophore area, males also vary the amount of ejaculate positively
with female size. Furthermore, the area of the spermatophore has a greater influence than female size on subsequent clutch
weight. In Jasus edwardsii from New Zealand, female size, male size and mate order all affect clutch weight. In both species, clutches fertilised by
small males in the laboratory are significantly smaller than clutches fertilised by large males. These results suggest that
to ensure they receive sufficient sperm, females should either mate several times prior to oviposition, mate as early as possible
in the reproductive season, or choose large, preferably unmated males as partners and thus compete with other females for
preferred males. Sperm-limited female fecundity has the potential to limit the egg production of fished populations where
large males are typically rare.
Received: 18 May 1998 / Received in revised form: 20 November 1998 / Accepted: 30 November 1998 相似文献
19.
O. Anne E. Rasa 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,43(2):105-113
Parastizopus armaticeps is a nocturnal subsocial detritivorous desert tenebrionid that produces very few offspring per brood. The two environmental
factors that constrain reproduction, rapid sand desiccation rate and food scarcity, are countered by biparental effort. Males
dig and extend breeding burrows, maintaining their moisture level; females forage on the surface at night for high-quality
detritus, the larval food. This was shown to be a scarce and unpredictable resource for which there is high competition. When
food was supplemented in a field experiment, offspring number and survivorship doubled and burrow failure due to desiccation
dropped from approximately half, the typical failure rate for unsupplemented burrows, to zero. Food supplementation did not,
however, increase larval foodstore size and there was no difference in the size of the offspring produced. Supplemented females
reallocated their time, foraging less and digging more with the male. This change in maternal behaviour patterns resulted
in deeper burrows which remained moist longer, thus extending the larval production period. Female foraging efficiency, particularly
food retrieval speed, determined how much time females could allocate to digging, consequently increasing the reproductive
success of the pair. Burrow depth and sand moisture level at the burrow base were the major correlates of reproductive success,
but the scarcity and unpredictability of high-quality food on the surface and the competition for this resource influenced
the number of offspring indirectly through their effect on female behaviour.
Received: 29 November 1996 / Accepted after revision: 7 December 1997 相似文献
20.
Peter M. Kappeler 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,42(6):411-421
The goals of this study were to investigate the transmission and possible functions of chemical signals in intragroup communication
among ring-tailed lemurs, Lemur catta. In particular, I examined the effects of sex on these processes because sexual selection theory predicts specific functions
for chemical signals. I recorded all interactions with 214 scent marks of 11 male and 9 female ring-tailed lemurs during the
first 10 min following their deposition. I found that 62% of these scent marks were investigated with a median latency of
30 s and that 89% of investigated scents were also counter-marked by the receiver. The type of focal scent mark (male or female
anogenital and male antebrachial mark) had a significant effect on both the timing and type of response. Males investigated
and counter-marked female scents more often than vice versa, but significant second-order transitions suggested that the behavior
of an animal was not only influenced by the immediately preceding scent mark and that a scent is not completely masked by
a counter-mark. There was no evidence for an audience effect, and only social rank of female senders had an effect on receivers.
Variation in the response of receivers across reproductive seasons as a function of senders' sex indicated that female scents
may function in mate attraction and competition among females, whereas male scents may be primarily used in intrasexual competition.
Three main conclusions emerged. First, the exchange of olfactory signals within groups was highly structured and surprisingly
efficient. Second, olfactory signals may constitute general mesasages whose transfer is partly controlled by the receiver.
Finally, sexual selection theory provides a useful theoretical framework for functional examinations of mammalian olfactory
communication.
Received: 13 June 1997 / Accepted after revision: 20 March 1998 相似文献