Baseline options and greenhouse gas emission reduction of clean development mechanism project in urban solid waste management

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) was adopted in the Kyoto Protocol as a flexibility mechanism to reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) and has been started with such projects as improving efficiency of individual technology. Although applying various countermeasures to urban areas has significant potentials for reducing GHGs, these countermeasures have not been proposed as CDM projects in the practical stage. A CDM project needs to be validated that it will reduce GHGs additionally compared with a baseline, that is, a predictive value of GHG emissions in the absence of the project. This study examined the introduction of solid waste incineration with electricity generation into three different cities, A, B and C. The combination of main solid waste treatment and fuel source are landfill and coal, respectively, in City A, incineration and natural gas in City B, and landfill and hydro in City C. GHG emission reductions of each city under several baseline options assumed here were evaluated. Even if the same technology is introduced, the emission reduction greatly varies according to the current condition and the future plan of the city: 1043–1406 kg CO₂/t of waste in City A, 198–580 kg CO₂/t in City B, and wide range of zero to over 1000 kg CO₂/tin City C. Baseline options also cause significant difference in the emission reduction even in the same city (City C). Incinerating solid waste after removing plastics by source separation in City B increased GHG emission reduction potential up to 730–900 kg CO₂/t, which enhances the effectiveness as a CDM project. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Project-Based Emissions Trading: The Impact of Institutional Arrangements on Cost-Effectiveness

In this paper we demonstrate that the institutionalarrangement (or: design) of Joint Implementation (JI) and the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM) has a decisive impact on theircost-effectiveness. We illustrate our arguments by statistically analyzing thecosts from 94 Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilot phase projects aswell as by adjusting these data on the basis of simple mathematicalformulas. These calculations explicitly take into account the institutionaldifferences between JI (sinks, no banking) and the CDM (banking, no sinks)under the Kyoto Protocol and also show the possible effects on credit costsof alternative design options. However, our numerical illustrations shouldbe viewed with caution, because AIJ is only to a limited extentrepresentative of potential future JI and CDM projects and because creditcosts are not credit prices. Some of the main figures found in this study are:an average cost figure per unit of emission reduction for AIJ projects of 46dollar per ton of carbon dioxide equivalent ($/Mg CO₂-eq), anaverage potential JI credit cost figure which is lowered to 37$/Mg CO₂-eq by introducing banking and an average of 6$/Mg CO₂-eq per credit for potential low-cost CDM projects whichincludes sinks. However, at CoP6 in November 2000 in The Hague (TheNetherlands), the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change(FCCC) did not (yet) reach consensus on the institutional details of theproject-based mechanisms, such as the possible arrangement of early JIaction or the inclusion of sinks under the CDM.     

UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol Clean Development Mechanism Baseline Construction for Vietnam National Electricity Grid

For projects under the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a baseline has to be set to allow calculation of the greenhouse gas emissions reductions achieved. An important obstacle to CDM project development is the lack of data for baseline definition; often project developers do not have access to data and therefore incur high transaction costs to collect them. The government of Vietnam has set up all necessary institutions for CDM, wants to promote CDM projects and thus is interested to reduce transaction costs. We calculate emission factors of the Vietnam electricity grid according to the rules defined by the CDM Executive Board for small scale projects and for large renewable electricity generation projects. The emission factors lie between 365 and 899 g CO₂/kWh depending on the specification. The weighted operating and build margin reaches 600 g for 2003, while grid average reaches 399 g. Using three-year averages, a combined build and operating margin of 705 g is calculated. We hope that these data facilitate CDM project development in the electricity supply and energy efficiency improvement in Vietnam.     

A little REDD model to quickly compare possible baseline and policy scenarios for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

A simple model allows rapid comparison of typical baseline and policy scenarios which might be considered under international programs to avoid CO₂ emissions caused by forest clearing, such as REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). These tests of REDD policy scenarios can also include CO₂ stored in forest products. The value of avoided emissions can also be determined if expected carbon prices, constant or varying, are included. The paper discusses simple illustrative example comparisons as well as possible feedback effects within larger scale setting of CO₂ offset availability, CO₂ price and emissions reductions.     

Applicability of CDM to civil engineering projects case study on reduction of CO2 emission by port extension

This paper investigates the applicability of CDM to civil engineering projects through a case study on the project to extend Port Samainda in Indonesia. The goal of this project is to improve the physical distribution system of the port so that it can accommodate increasing future demand for the cargo transportation. Based on the project report by JICA (2002), we first outline the predicted demand for the cargo transportation and select possible three options in which a cargo vessel with different capabilities and respective port facilities are assigned. For each option, CO₂ emissions from both cargo and dredging vessels are predicted and compared. It is found that the total CO₂ emission may be reduced significantly by introducing a large-draft vessel and deep navigation channels. This feature becomes more prominent if a traveling distance of the cargo vessels is long enough so that CO₂ emissions from cargo vessels dominates those of dredging vessels. This observation supports the applicability of CDM to civil engineering projects because reduction of the CO₂emission is attained by improving distribution systems through civil engineering works such as extension of the port and the maintenance dredging. Finally, we discuss future problems to be investigated for the practical application of CDM to a civil engineering project. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

CDM potential of SPV lighting systems in India

In view of the increasing interest in the development and dissemination of technologies for harnessing new and renewable sources of energy in India, there have also been some efforts towards their use in the domestic lighting sector. However, the cumulative number of Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) lighting systems such as SPV lanterns and solar home lighting systems in India is far below their theoretical potential despite government subsidy programmes. One of the major barriers is the high capital investment in these systems. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) provides industrialized countries with an incentive to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries to achieve a reduction in CO₂ emissions at lowest cost that also promotes sustainable development in the host country. SPV lanterns and solar home lighting systems could be of interest under the CDM because they directly displace greenhouse gas emissions while contributing to sustainable rural development. However, only two SPV projects have been submitted under the CDM so far. This study assesses the maximum theoretical as well as the realistically achievable CDM potential of SPV lanterns and solar home lighting systems in India. The SPV lantern project is financially viable at a certified emissions reductions (CER) price of 34 € whereas the solar home lighting project is financially viable at a CER price of 46 €. While the maximum mitigation volume is about 35 million tonne CO₂ on an annual basis, an estimate of achievable CER levels is done using the past diffusion trends of SPV systems. We find that annual CER volumes could reach 0.8 to 2.4 million by 2012 and 5.6 to 13.6 million by 2020. This would require that the government sets the subsidy level for SPV lighting systems at a level that allows them to become viable with the CER revenue. From a macro-economic point of view this makes sense if the sustainability benefits are deemed sufficiently high to warrant promotion of this type of project.

Will Simplified Modalities and Procedures Make More Small-Scale Forestry Projects Viable Under the Clean Development Mechanism?

Simplified modalities and procedures (M&P) are expected to increase the viability of small-scale project activities under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). A small-scale afforestation or reforestation (AR) project is defined as a project removing less than 8 kilotons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e) per year. Depending on the project type and the method for measuring scale, 8 kilotons of CO₂e per year correspond to highly diverse areas, possibly ranging from 200 to 6000 ha. Using a model to calculate the minimum project scale above which the CDM is a positive financial incentive for eligible AR project activities, the paper analyzes whether a reduction of transaction costs under simplified M&P will be a sufficient incentive to motivate small-scale participation in the CDM. Model results show that, even under optimistic assumptions on carbon market conditions and transaction costs, small-scale project activities will not benefit from simplified M&P. Results also show that project activities removing more than 8 kilotons of CO₂e per year and registered as small-scale would be the ones that could benefit the most from simplified M&P. It is concluded that the participation of small-scale project activities to the CDM requires more than simplified M&P, the price of expiring Certified Emission Reductions being one of the most critical parameters.     

Forest carbon management,the greenhouse effect and electric utilities

Electric utilities in the US have initiated forestry projects to conserve energy and to offset carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. In 1995, 40 companies raised US$2.5 million to establish the non-profit UtiliTree Carbon Company which is now sponsoring eight projects representing a mix of rural tree planting, forest preservation, forest management and research efforts at both domestic (Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Oregon) and international sites (Belize and Malaysia). The projects include extensive external verification. Such forestry projects — properly documented, monitored and verified — should be a component of domestic and international strategies to address greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, due to GHG benefits, cost-effectiveness and many other environmental benefits (e.g., related to habitat, erosion and biodiversity). These projects on average are projected to manage CO₂ at a cost of about US $1 per ton. Experts have determined through a series of technical workshops and projects that GHG benefits can be accurately quantified for most types of forestry projects and, in fact, forestry projects in general present no greater challenges than energy-related projects. Near-term policy decision-making related to CO₂ management via forestry is discussed.     

Reconciling Emissions Trading with a Technology-Based Response to Potential Abrupt Climate Change

It has been shown that preparedness to respond effectively to imminent abrupt climate change, getting CO₂ levels down towards pre-industrial in a few decades, involves the promotion of specific technology types that can be the basis for a negative emissions energy system (Read and Lermit 2003/5). In particular, Bio-Energy technologies linked to technologies for CO₂ Capture and Storage (BECS) or to other carbon disposal technologies, if done on a sufficiently large scale, can achieve this result given a context of policy urgency that also yields advances in energy efficiency and the take up of ambient energy technologies (wind, solar, etc.) in line with low emissions energy scenarios (e.g. the fossil free energy scenario developed by the Tellus Institute for Greenpeace International (Lazarus et al. 1993). It has also been shown (Read 1999, 2000, 2000a) that, if account is taken of inter-temporal beneficial learning externalities, it is efficient to reward innovation in policy-desirable technology types (e.g. through project-based schemes that embody such technology types) by a greater amount than the penalty on emissions. Such dynamic efficiency can be achieved through establishing a secondary market for project based credits exchanged for a number of emissions permits M(t) (M > 1 for t < H, the time horizon for policy) and with the variation of M(t) over time corresponding to the dynamically efficient path. This results in the incentive for project based emissions reductions being M(t) times greater than the penalty on emissions. By making use of the initial allocation of permits in each time period, an aspect of emissions permit trading that has no efficiency function under either auctioning or ‘grand-fathering’, this arrangement enables project based credits to be administered flexibly whilst ensuring the integrity of the emissions cap. The purpose of this article is to link these two bodies of work to show how a dynamically efficient response to the threat of abrupt climate change can be implemented in a way that is compatible with the response to gradual climate change that has been negotiated in the Kyoto Protocol. The design of such a dynamically efficient mechanism is considered, having as its objective the promotion of the two technology types mentioned above. A particular institutional model for implementing such a mechanism is described that mimics managerial behaviour in the adoption of new technology, avoids the additionality requirement that burdens the operation of the CDM in its current form, and aims to achieve ‘industry friendliness’ as a necessary condition of effective implementation.     

太原市“十四五”规划大气污染防治政策的CO2协同效益评估

为量化评估太原市“十四五”大气污染防治政策的减污降碳协同效益,使用京津冀温室气体-空气污染相互作用与协同模型（GAINS-JJJ）,模拟评估13项大气污染防治措施的减排潜力,CO₂的协同减排效益.2025年政策情景下一次PM_2.5、PM₁₀、SO₂、NO_x、VOCs和NH₃分别减排1.8（5%,相对于基准情景减排比例,下同）、2.5（2%）、3.7（16%）、20.0（27%）、13.6（15%）和0.0 kt（0%）,CO₂减排9.0 Mt（13%）,CH₄排放增加203.3 kt（相对于基准情景增加25%）.SO₂、NO_x与VOCs减排主要发生在电力、工业燃烧与溶剂使用部门,CO₂减排主要发生在工业燃烧部门,CH₄排放量增加是由于煤矿开采活动水平升高.限制“双高”行业的能源消耗,严禁新增产能以及可再生能源发电比例提升措施的CO₂协同减排效益最高.VOCs具有优异协同减碳效益.建议太原市进一步推进终端电气化政策,同时需加大提升电力行业清洁能源比重和可再生能源发电的消纳能力.     

Framework for improved confidence in modeled nitrous oxide estimates for biofuel regulatory standards

Biofuels vary greatly in their carbon intensity, depending on the specifics of how they are produced. Policy frameworks are needed to ensure that biofuels actually achieve intended reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Current approaches do not account for important variables during cultivation that influence emissions. Estimating emissions based on biogeochemical models would allow accounting of farm-specific conditions, which in turn provides an incentive for producers to adopt low emissions practices. However, there are substantial uncertainties in the application of biogeochemical models. This paper proposes a policy framework that manages this uncertainty while retaining the ability of the models to account for (and hence incentivize) low emissions practices. The proposed framework is demonstrated on nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from the cultivation of winter barley. The framework aggregates uncertainties over time, which (1) avoids penalizing producers for uncertainty in weather, (2) allows for a high degree of confidence in the emissions reductions achieved, and (3) attenuates the uncertainty penalties borne by producers within a timescale of several years. Results indicate that with effective management, N₂O emissions from feedstock cultivation may be <?5% of the carbon intensity of gasoline, whereas the existing policy approach estimates emissions >?20% of the carbon intensity of gasoline. If these emissions reductions are monetized, the framework can provide up to $0.002 per liter credits (0.8 cents per gallon) to fuel producers, which could incentivize emissions mitigation practices by biofuel feedstock suppliers, such as avoiding fall N application on silty clay loam soils. The conservatism in the current approach fails to incentivize the adoption of biofuels, while the lack of specificity fails to incentivize site-level mitigation practices. Improved uncertainty accounting and consideration of farm-level practices will incentivize mitigation efforts at landscape to global scales.     

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel demand and solar energy conversion efficiency in European bioethanol production for automotive purposes

Crop derived biofuels such as (bio)ethanol are increasingly applied for automotive purposes. They have, however, a relatively low efficiency in converting solar energy into automotive power. The outcome of life cycle studies concerning ethanol as to fossil fuel inputs and greenhouse gas emissions associated with such inputs depend strongly on the assumptions made regarding e.g. allocation, inclusion of upstream processes and estimates of environmentally relevant in- and outputs. Peer reviewed studies suggest that CO₂ emissions linked to life cycle fossil fuel input are typically about 2.1–3.0 kg CO₂ kg⁻¹ starch-derived ethanol. When biofuel production involves agricultural practices that are common in Europe there are net losses of carbon from soil and emissions of the greenhouse gas N₂O. Dependent on choices regarding allocation, they may, for wheat (starch) be in the order of 0.6–2.5 kg CO₂ equivalent kg⁻¹ of ethanol. This makes ethanol derived from starch, or sugar crops, in Europe still less attractive for mitigating climate change. In case of wheat, changes in agricultural practice may reduce or reverse carbon loss from soils. When biofuel production from crops leads to expansion of cropland while reducing forested areas or grassland, added impetus will be given to climate change.     

Carbon values,reforestation, and `perverse' incentives under the Kyoto protocol: An empirical analysis

Economic incentives for sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) in forests may be an effective way to meet greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (KP). But concerns have been raised that the KP may create unintended incentives to excessively harvest existing forests if regenerated forests qualify for carbon (C) credits under the reforestation provision of Article 3.3. This paper combines an analytical model of the optimal forest rotation with both timber and C as priced outputs with data on timber and C growth and yield to different forest settings in the U.S. C prices of $50 per megagram (Mg) – the highest price evaluated– can considerably lengthen forest rotations (40 years or more), raise forest land values (as much as $1,900 per hectare), and sequester more C in the long run (up to 60 percent per acre), relative to the base case of no C compensation. However, if C payments are made for the regenerated stand only, in some situations, it is optimal to immediately harvest an otherwise premature stand at C prices as low as $20/Mg. The strength of perverse incentives to accelerate harvesting of existing forest varies by forest type, region, C price level, and institutional factors relevant to the compensation system. If C compensation were extended to existing stands, as may be possible under Article 3.4 of the KP, the perverse incentives for prematurely harvesting existing stands would not exist.     

Fairness aspects of linking the European emissions trading scheme under a long-term stabilization scenario for CO2 concentration

Climate equity is a crucial but difficult element in negotiations on a post-2012 climate regime. With respect to the trading of greenhouse gas emissions the equity aspect is considered in the Kyoto Protocol which demands that emissions trading should be supplemental to domestic abatement efforts. The question arises whether a linking of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) to non-EU emission trading schemes or the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) could have an impact on principles of climate justice and thus potentially affect ongoing negotiations. In this study, we present the results of a three step analysis: In a first step, it estimates mid-term greenhouse gas emission entitlements for Annex B and Non-Annex B countries for the year 2020 which keep within reach a stabilization of the CO₂ concentration at 450 ppmv in the long-term. In the second step, the resulting emission entitlements are used as an input to an economic partial-equilibrium model in order to assess the shift of abatement efforts under different scenarios of linking the EU ETS. In a third step, we analyze the outcome of the economic model with respect to the future trend of European per capita emissions under the current EU ETS relative to different scenarios of linking the EU ETS. The model results indicate that European per capita emissions have to be reduced to a considerably smaller extent if a linking of the EU ETS is accompanied by an optimal design of the National Allocation Plans and if low-cost CO₂ permits became available via the CDM to a large extent.

Deep Geological CO2 Storage: Principles Reviewed, and Prospecting for Bio-energy Disposal Sites

The principles of hydrocarbon exploration and production provide well-established and tested principles and technologies to investigate storage of fluids in the subsurface. CO₂ can be stored in the subsurface using settings of: (A) thick permeable coal seams; (B) depleted oil and gas fields; (C) saline aquifers of regional extent, with an overlying seal. The North Sea Sleipner project shows that CO₂ can be injected into the pore space of deep geological aquifers deeper than 800 m at 1 Mt/yr, using established technology. Suitable sediment sequences of saline aquifers exist in all hydrocarbon-producing areas, are volumetrically much larger than exploited oil and gas fields, and hold the potential to easily store all worldwide CO₂ emissions until 2050. Geological principles are established to assess entire continents for candidate sites of CO₂ storage. This shows that opportunity may be widespread, but needs more specific local investigations. Onshore sub-Saharan Africa is considered the most problematic region – but even here there are potentially viable sediment sequences. No demonstration projects currently exist for CO₂ capture and storage using small-scale onshore facilities. A simple estimate, assuming CO₂ value of $20 per ton, suggests that single boreholes onshore may be viable over 20 years with supply rates of 100,000 ton CO₂ per year. In principle, atmospheric CO₂ could be captured by cultivated biomass, and co-fired in existing power stations. Or energy crops could be grown, CO₂ to be used, and stored deep below ground, in a country distant from an original fossil-fuel CO₂ emission site.     

Incremental cost-effectiveness of incorporating oestriol evaluation in down syndrome screening programmes

As screening for Down syndrome becomes increasingly sophisticated, it is important to evaluate the newer technologies in terms of their cost-effectiveness. One recent addition to Down syndrome screening programmes is maternal serum unconjugated oestriol (uE₃), especially when used in conjunction with maternal serum α-fetoprotein and human chorionic gonadotropin. Using assumptions used in a California proposal to justify an expanded screening programme for Down syndrome, we calculated both the average and the incremental cost-effectiveness of adding uE₃. Using the base case assumptions, including an $8 fee for the uE₃, the incremental cost-effectiveness of adding uE₃ to the proposed California programme is $119 100 per case detected, a value that compares favourably with other Down syndrome screening programmes. The sensitivity analysis supports this conclusion over a wide range of assumptions. However, because of the uncertainty with some key data, it is still too early to fully support the inclusion of uE₃ in Down syndrome screening programmes.     

High fluxes but different patterns of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions from soil in a cattle overwintering area

Cattle overwintering areas common in central Europe may represent significant point sources of the important greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). A 2-year field study was carried out in order to estimate the emissions of N₂O and CO₂ from soil in a cattle overwintering area located in the southwest of the Czech Republic. The measurements were performed at three sampling locations along a gradient of animal impact (severe, moderate, slight) to test the hypothesis that emissions of CO₂ and N₂O are positively related to the degree of impact. In addition to CO₂ and N₂O fluxes determined by using non-vented manual closed chambers, soil mineral nitrogen (NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻), pH and temperature were determined to assess their regulatory role and impact on gas fluxes. The overwintering area was about 4 ha and it had been used for overwintering of about 90 cows since 1995. Deposition of animal excreta resulted in a significant accumulation of nitrogen in the soil during winter, but most of the N₂O was emitted during a few short periods in spring and/or in late autumn. Maximum N₂O fluxes of up to 2.5 mg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹ were recorded at the most impacted location near the animal house, where the highest concentrations of soil mineral nitrogen also occurred. The emissions of CO₂ showed a completely different pattern to those of N₂O, being correlated with soil temperature; the highest emissions thus occurred in June–July, while very low fluxes were found in winter. Emission values ranged from about 0 to 700 mg C-CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹. Furthermore, the effect of animal impact on CO₂ emissions was opposite to that on N₂O fluxes, as the highest CO₂ fluxes were mostly recorded at the least impacted location, where respiration of plants most likely increased overall CO₂ production. The results show that cattle overwintering areas are important sources of greenhouse gases, including N₂O and CO₂. Fluxes of these two gases are, however, differently distributed over the year, which also suggests that they are controlled by different environmental and soil factors.     

粤闽浙沿海重点城市道路交通节能减排路径

随着社会和经济的高速发展,能源消耗量快速增加,随之而来的污染问题也日益加剧.目前的研究主要集中于单一城市或长三角、珠三角和京津冀等中国三大经济圈的道路交通节能减排,缺乏对东南沿海经济圈的相关研究.粤闽浙三省位于我国东南沿海经济发展的核心地带,在其经济发展的同时不可避免地带来了能耗及排放问题.基于长期能源替代规划系统模型,构建了2015~2035年粤闽浙沿海重点城市道路交通基准情景（BAU）以及现有政策情景（EPS）和改进政策情景（MPS）,其中,EPS和MPS均设置了车辆结构优化情景（VSO）、提高燃油经济性情景（IFE）和年均行驶里程减少情景（RDM）.基于情景模拟,评估在各项政策和措施的作用下,粤闽浙沿海重点城市的道路交通节能减排潜力.结果表明,在一级情景中,改进政策情景对于节约能耗、碳减排以及污染物减排效果最好,相比于基准情景2035年其节能力度达75%,且对CO₂、CO、NO_x、PM_2.5和SO₂的排放削减力度分别达68%、59%、66%、70%和64%;在二级情景中,提升燃油经济性的改进情景对于节约能耗（削减30%）效果显著;车辆结构调整的改进情景（削减36%、30%、36%、26%和40%）和年均行驶里程减少的改进情景（削减37%、37%、36%、37%和36%）对于CO₂、CO、NO_x、PM_2.5和SO₂减排效果显著.     

Integrated assessment of promising measures to decrease nitrogen losses from agriculture in EU-27

Following the recognition of the detrimental effects of nitrogen (N) losses from agriculture in the European Union (EU) on human health and environment, series of environmental policy measures have been implemented from the early 1990s onwards. However, these measures have only been partially successful. Clearly, there is lack of integration of available measures and there is lack of enforcement and hierarchy; which measures should be implemented first? We identified and assessed three ‘most promising measures’ to decrease N losses from agriculture, i.e., (i) balanced fertilization, (ii) low-protein animal feeding, and (iii) ammonia (NH₃) emissions abatement measures. Environmental-economic assessments were made using scenario analyses and the modeling tools MITERRA-EUROPE and CAPRI.In the baseline scenario (business as usual), N use efficiency (NUE) in crop production increases from 44% in 2000 to 48% in 2020, while total N losses decrease by 10%. Implementation of promising measures increases NUE further to 51–55%, and decreases NH₃ emissions (by up to 23%), nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions (by up to 10%) and N leaching losses (by up to 35%). Differences in responsiveness to promising measures varied between and within Member States. Strict implementation of balanced fertilization in nitrate vulnerable zones, as defined in the Nitrates Directive, decreases total farmers’ income in EU-27 by 1.7 billion euros per year. Implementation of all three measures decreases farmers income by 10.8 and total welfare by 17 billion euros per year, without valuing the environmental benefits.The study presented here is one of the first EU-wide integrated assessments of the effects of policy measures on all major N losses from agriculture and their economic costs. Our results show that the most promising measures are effective in enhancing NUE and decreasing NH₃ and N₂O emissions to the atmosphere and N leaching to groundwater and surface waters, but that income effects are significant. The order of implementation of the measures is important; NH₃ emissions abatement measures must be implemented together with balanced N fertilization.     

Potential of Co2 emission reductions by carbonizing biomass waste from industrial tree plantation in South Sumatra,Indonesia

Approximately half of the carbon in trees can be fixed to charcoal by carbonization. Porous charcoal is useful as a soil amendment for crop fields and forests, and also as a water purifying agent. Given these facts, charcoal production should be recognized as one of the most promising CO₂ sequestration methods. A project on biomass utilization and forest conservation is proposed as a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project, by incorporating the carbonization of biomass residue and waste from tree plantations and pulp mills, and also the utilization of carbon products in various fields. A feasibility study was conducted with the existing project of an industrial tree plantation and pulp production in Indonesia. If conventional charcoal-making methods are used, a total of 368,000 t yr^-1 of biomass residue and waste could be transformed into charcoal of77,000 t yr^-1, and the carbon emission reductions by the project reaches 62,000t-C yr^-1 (or 230,000 t-CO₂yr^-1) in consideration of the project baseline. This charcoal project could provide jobs for approximately 2,600people. The soil fertility in man-made forests could be maintained by returning charcoal to the original forests. Therefore, the project would be beneficial to the regional economy. In addition, the present charcoal project is expected to give more positive impacts than negative ones, or leakage, beyond the project boundary. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.