我国环境经济方面的能力建设与国际援助

本文论述了加强环境经济能力建设的背景、避免市场失灵及政府失灵的措施以及商业银行参与环保产业融资的经验.     

环境污染的法律控制路径论说

市场失灵决定法律作为国家手段必须介入环境污染控制.无论是传统法还是针对具体环境污染问题而制定的单项环境法,都因其"滞后性和片面性",难以收到良好的控制效果.为有效应对环境问题,必须贯彻"事先预防、全面控制"的理念,制定以"计划性、综合性"为特点的环境基本法.鉴于环境基本法在各国控制环境污染的实践中成效显著,应坚持中国《环境保护法》的环境基本法定位,并随着环境问题的发展,不断完善之.     

流域跨界水污染纠纷调控机制分析

随着中国水资源匮乏和水污染态势日益严峻,流域跨界水污染冲突频繁发生.运用博弈论对流域跨界水污染和用水冲突的成因进行解释,并对不同调控策略下流域各方行为进行分析.结果表明,在缺乏有效管制的情况下,由于个体和集体理性的不一致,导致水资源过度利用和水污染,但政府全面管制却导致个体理性不能满足而很难得以有效贯彻实施.因此,运用市场激励机制和政府宏观调控,可以促进流域各方的激励相容,实现流域总体效益的优化.     

我国环境经济方面的能力建设与国际援助

本文论述了加强环境经济能力建设的背景、避免市场失灵及政府失灵的措施以及商业银行参与环保产业融资的经验。     

中国工业点源水排污许可证制度框架设计

水排污许可证制度是点源排放的基本和综合的管理制度,是污染源的守法文件,也是政府对污染源的监管文书。按照政策设计的一般方法,借鉴发达国家和地区的经验,以保障点源的"连续达标排放"为目标设计中国工业点源水排污许可证制度框架。提出将点源按排放规模进行分类和分级,建立相应的管理机制,包括信息机制、资金机制、监督核查机制和问责处罚机制;建立注册环境管理工程师制度以满足实施排污许可证对专业人才的需求;以排污许可证制度为基础整合点源排放相关政策,提高相关政策间的协调,减少冲突,提高政策效率。     

公众参与环境管理的模式创新及试点探讨

合理有序的公众参与可以有效弥补政府失灵和市场失灵,改变社会力量在环境保护中功能缺位和主体缺位的双重窘境。但目前中国公众参与环境管理存在法律法规不健全、公众参与环境管理的程度不高、组织体系不完善、民间组织发展缓慢、社区参与环境管理不足等问题。在此基础上,建议引入社区磋商小组这种创新型公众参与模式来充分调动基层广泛的公众力量来参与环境管理。介绍了社区磋商小组的模式设计、职能和特点,并对社区磋商小组的试点研究和效果进行总结。最后提出,社区磋商小组这一公众参与环境管理的模式在常州市雅浦村的示范效果和成功经验为进一步研究社区参与环境管理奠定了良好的基础,该模式在中国有着广泛的应用前景,但仍需在政策支持、资金保障和长效运行模式等方面展开进一步研究。     

彰显公平追求和谐——全面施行新修订的《水污染防治法》之哲学思考

新修订的《水污染防治法》,通篇洋溢着时代的气息和创新精神,为消除政府、市场“双失灵”的不良倾向,努力克服“地方保护主义”,引导市场客观地反映环境成本,宽严相济,刚柔并用,突出制度创新和机制创新,强调政府责任,主张公民权利,大幅度地提高了违法成本,强力推进了市场主体的外部不经济性内部化,旨在实现社会主义市场经济条件下的公平与和谐。当前,在“两高一低”（守法成本高,执法成本高,违法成本低）的态势之下,无疑必须严格执法,方能彰显公平,追求和谐。在严格执法的同时,应十分注重拓宽守法空间,拓宽创新空间,拓宽法律实施的有效空间,进一步强化政府责任,强化公众参与,调动方方面面保护环境的内在动力,以推动社会经济的全面、协调、可持续发展。     

北京市城区雨水径流污染控制与节能减排

节能减排是目前中国建设和谐社会、实施可持续发展的重大战略方针.随着城市生活污水处理率和工业废水达标率的不断提高以及清洁生产技术与管理体系的大力推行,城市雨水径流污染在水环境污染排放总量中所占比例越来越大.以北京市为例,2006年城八区生活污水处理率已达到90.0%.雨水径流COD排放量占废水COD排放总量的33.39%,足见城市径流污染已成为节能减排的重要方面,亟需全社会的广泛关注.控制城市雨水径流污染应从加强雨水径流污染的监管力度下手,建立以市场激励为主、政府管制为辅的雨水政策框架.     

关于提高环境统计数据质量的探讨

准确可靠的统计数据是科学决策的依据,也是搞好环境统计服务和监督的基础。环境统计数据的准确性是对环境统计工作最基本的要求之一,它是环境统计的生命所在。如果说某些产品质量不合格,可以当“处理品”降格使用,那么,环境统计数据质量低劣不仅没有使用价值,还可能导致决策的失误,造成不可估量的损失。合理利用资源,注意保护生态环境,迫切需要准确、及时的环境统计信息反馈。因此,各级环境统计部门必须把提高环境统计数据的质量摆到环境统计工作的首要位置上来,把环     

论环境规划实施的一般模式

环境规划实施是政府相关部门根据环境保护的要求,建立组织机构,分解规划目标,在有效地分配和利用人力、财力、物力以及信息资源的条件下,采取宣传、审批、检查、监测和处罚等手段,使规划目标得以实现的动态过程.其一般模式包括宣传、实施计划、实施检查、验收批准和实施效果评估.中国当前的环境规划需要在保障资金、建立信息交流和共享机制、提高公众的参与水平、人员培训和技术支持、完善行政审批和行政问责机制等方面予以加强,并应尽快建立环境规划的法规体系.     

Chloroaromatic pollutants in mussels incubated in two finnish watercourses polluted by industry

Concentrations of different chlorinated compounds were measured in mussels incubated in two polluted watercourses, a river (the River Kymijoki) and a lake (Lake Vanaja) for four weeks in summer 1995. The sum concentrations of polychlorinated phenols (PCP) and biphenyls (PCB) were both about 1 μg/g lipid weight (lw) in Lake Vanaja mussels, while in the River Kymijoki mussels PCPs were non-detectable and PCBs were measured 120 ng/g lIw. The concentrations of toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and dibenzofuran (PCDF) congeners ranged between <17 and 370 pg/g Iw in Lake Vanaja mussels and between <38 and 11,000 pg/g lw in the River Kymijoki mussels. Polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDE) were detected in the mussels incubated in the River Kymijoki (0.4–1.1 ng/g Iw), but not in those incubated in Lake Vanaja. Polychlorinated phenoxyanisoles (PCPA) were measured 33 ng/g lw and polychlorinated phenoxyphenols (PCPP) 300 ng/g lw in the mussels incubated in the River Kymijoki. PCPAs were also detected in reference samples, which were sediment and pike from the River Kymijoki and Baltic salmon, seal and white-tailed sea eagle.     

Book review

The Pesticide Manual ‐ A World Compendium, 8th Edition, C.R. Worthing, Editor and S.B. Walker, Assistant Editor, British Crop Protection Council, BCPC Publications Sales, Bear Farm, Binfield, Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 5QE, England. 1987, 1100 pp., UK £50; Overseas £56. ISBN 0–948404–01–9.     

Organochlorine compounds in a three-step terrestrial food chain

The concentrations of 15 organochlorine chemicals (PCBs and pesticides) were studied in a Central European oak wood food chain system: Great tit (Parus major), caterpillars (Tortrix viridana, Operophtera brumata, Erannis defoliaria), and oak-leaves (Quercus robur). Juvenile tits receive organochlorines from the mother via egg transfer and, eventually to a greater extent, from the caterpillar food source during nestling period. The concentrations of PCB 153 (2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl, the most abundant in this study) was found in leaf material at ca. 1 ng/g, in caterpillars 10 ng/g, and in bird eggs 170 ng/g on an average and on a dry mass basis.     

The chemical stability of formulations of some hydrolyzable insecticides in aqueous mixtures with hydrolysis catalysts

Abstract

The active ingredients in commercial formulations of malathion, oxamyl, carbaryl, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos diluted to “spray tank”; concentrations with buffered distilled or natural water of pH 4–9 were stable for at least 24 hr. Formulations of trichlorfon were not stable at pH 7 or above but disappearance rates were slower than for the pure chemical in homogeneous solution. Cupric ion was observed to be an effective catalyst for the hydrolysis of a variety of pure organophosphorus insecticides but did not catalyze hydrolysis of the active ingredients of the formulations examined. Increasing the dilution of the formulation increased the susceptibility of malathion, oxamyl, and carbaryl to hydrolysis.     

Observations on the influence of water and soil pH on the persistence of insecticides

Abstract

The pH‐disappearance rate profiles were determined at ca. 25°C for 24 insecticides at 4 or 5 pH values over the range 4.5 to 8.0 in sterile phosphate buffers prepared in water‐ethanol (99: 1 v/v). Half‐lives measured at pH 8 were generally smaller than at lower pH values. Changes in half lives between pH 8.0 and 4.5 were largest (>1000x) for the aryl carbamates, carbofuran and carbaryl, the oxime carbamate, oxamyl, and the organophosphorus insecticide, trichlorfon. In contrast, half lives of phorate, terbufos, heptachlor, fensulfothion and aldicarb were affected only slightly by pH changes. Under the experimental conditions described half lives at pH8 varied from 1–2 days for trichlorfon and oxamyl to >1 year for fensulfothion and cyper‐methrin. Insecticide persistence on alumina (acid, neutral and basic), mineral soils amended with aluminum sulfate or calcium hydroxide to different pH values and four natural soils of different pH was examined. No correlation was observed between the measured pH of these solids and the rate of disappearance of selected insecticides applied to them. These observations demonstrate the difficulty of extrapolating the pH dependent disappearance behaviour observed in homogeneous solution to partially solid heterogeneous systems such as soil.     

Radionuclides in pinon pine (Pinus edulis) nuts from los alamos national laboratory lands and the dose from consumption

Abstract

One of the dominant tree species growing within and around the eastern portion of Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Los Alamos, NM, lands is the pinon pine (Pinus edulis). Pinon pine is used for firewood, fence posts, and building materials and is a source of nuts for food—the seeds are consumed by a wide variety of animals and are also gathered by people in the area and eaten raw or roasted. This study investigated the (1) concentration of ³H, ¹³⁷Cs, ⁹⁰Sr, ^totU, ²³⁸Pu, ^{239, 240}Pu, and²⁴¹ Am in soils (0‐ to 12‐in. [31 cm] depth underneath the tree), pinon pine shoots (PPS), and pinon pine nuts (PPN) collected from LANL lands and regional background (BG) locations, (2) committed effective dose equivalent (CEDE) from the ingestion of nuts, and (3) soil to PPS to PPN concentration ratios (CRs). Most radionuclides, with the exception of ³H in soils, were not significantly higher (p < 0.10) in soils, PPS, and PPN collected from LANL as compared to BG locations, and concentrations of most radionuclides in PPN from LANL have decreased over time. The maximum net CEDE (the CEDE plus two sigma minus BG) at the most conservative ingestion rate (10 lb [4.5 kg]) was 0.0018 mrem (0.018 μSv); this is far below the International Commission on Radiological Protection (all pathway) permissible dose limit of 100 mrem (1000 μSv). Soil‐to‐nut CRs for most radionuclides were within the range of default values in the literature for common fruits and vegetables.     

Degradation and sorption of imidacloprid in dissimilar surface and subsurface soils

Degradation and sorption/desorption are important processes affecting the leaching of pesticides through soil. This research characterized the degradation and sorption of imidacloprid (1-[(6-chloro-3-pyridinyl)-methyl]-N-nitro-2-imidazolidinimine) in Drummer (silty clay loam) and Exeter (sandy loam) surface soils and their corresponding subsurface soils using sequential extraction methods over 400 days. By the end of the incubation, approximately 55% of imidacloprid applied at a rate of 1.0 mg kg^?1 degraded in the Exeter sandy loam surface and subsurface soils, compared to 40% of applied imidacloprid within 300 days in Drummer surface and subsurface soils. At the 0.1 mg kg^?1 application rate, dissipation was slower for all four soils. Water-extractable imidacloprid in Exeter surface soil decreased from 98% of applied at day 1 to > 70% of the imidacloprid remaining after 400 d, as compared to 55% in the Drummer surface soil at day 1 and 12% at day 400. These data suggest that imidacloprid was bioavailable to degrading soil microorganisms and sorption/desorption was not the limiting factor for biodegradation. In subsurface soils > 40% of ¹⁴C-benzoic acid was mineralized over 21 days, demonstrating an active microbial community. In contrast, cumulative ¹⁴CO₂ was less than 1.5% of applied ¹⁴C-imidacloprid in all soils over 400 d. Qualitative differences in the microbial communities appear to limit the degradation of imidacloprid in the subsurface soils.     

Evaluation of trichloroethene recovery processes in heterogeneous aquifer cells flushed with biodegradable surfactants

The ability of two biodegradable surfactants, polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate (Tween 80) and sodium dihexyl sulfosuccinate (Aerosol MA), to recover a representative dense non-aqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL), trichloroethene (TCE), from heterogeneous porous media was evaluated through a combination of batch and aquifer cell experiments. An aqueous solution containing 3.3% Aerosol MA, 8% 2-propanol and 6 g/l CaCl(2) yielded a weight solubilization ratio (WSR) of 1.21 g TCE/g surfactant, with a corresponding liquid-liquid interfacial tension (IFT) of 0.19 dyn/cm. Flushing of aquifer cells containing a TCE-DNAPL source zone with approximately two pore volumes of the AMA formulation resulted in substantial (>30%) mobilization of TCE-DNAPL. However, a TCE mass recovery of 81% was achieved when the aqueous-phase flow rate was sufficient to displace the mobile TCE-DNAPL toward the effluent well. Aqueous solutions of Tween 80 exhibited a greater capacity to solubilize TCE (WSR=1.74 g TCE/g surfactant) and exerted markedly less reduction in IFT (10.4 dyn/cm). These data contradict an accepted empirical correlation used to estimate IFT values from solubilization capacity, and indicate a unique capacity of T80 to form concentrated TCE emulsions. Flushing of aquifer cells with less than 2.5 pore volumes of a 4% T80 solution achieved TCE mass recoveries ranging from 66 to 85%, with only slight TCE-DNAPL mobilization (<5%) occurring when the total trapping number exceeded 2 x 10(-5). These findings demonstrate the ability of Tween 80 and Aerosol MA solutions to efficiently recover TCE from a heterogeneous DNAPL source zone, and the utility of the total trapping number as a design parameter for a priori prediction of DNAPL mobilization and bank angle formation when flushing with low-IFT solutions. Given their potential to stimulate microbial reductive dechlorination at low concentrations, these surfactants are well-suited for remedial action plans that couple aggressive mass removal followed by enhanced bioremediation to treat chlorinated solvent source zones.     

Biochemical interaction of six op delayed neurotoxicants with several neurotargets

Abstract

Five organophosphorous insecticides: Leptophos, EPN, Cyano‐fenphos, trichloronate and salithion proved to cause irreversible ataxia not only to chicken but also to mice and sheep. TOCP was included as a reference. Cyanofenphos blocked the catecholamine B‐receptor binding activity with ³H‐norepinephrine at a level similar to that of the specific inhibitor propranolol in the mouse heart preparation. In the lamb heart preparation, the B‐receptor was more sensitive to Leptophos, salithion and TOCP than to propranolol. The six compounds and their oxons were screened for their in‐vitro inhibition to monamine oxidase (MAO), acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and neurotoxic esterase (NTE) in the brain of either mouse, lamb or chicken. It is believed that their AChE inhibition stands for their acute toxicity, while NTE inhibition is responsible for their paralytic ataxia.     

Phytoextraction of lead-contaminated soil using vetivergrass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vetiveria zizanioides</Emphasis> L.), cogongrass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Imperata cylindrica</Emphasis> L.) and carabaograss (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Paspalum conjugatum</Emphasis> L.)

Background, Aims and Scope The global problem concerning contamination of the environment as a consequence of human activities is increasing. Most of the environmental contaminants are chemical by-products and heavy metals such as lead (Pb). Lead released into the environment makes its way into the air, soil and water. Lead contributes to a variety of health effects such as decline in mental, cognitive and physical health of the individual. An alternative way of reducing Pb concentration from the soil is through phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is an alternative method that uses plants to clean up a contaminated area. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the survival rate and vegetative characteristics of three grass species such as vetivergrass, cogongrass and carabaograss grown in soils with different Pb levels; and (2) to determine and compare the ability of the three grass species as potential phytoremediators in terms of Pb accumulation by plants. Methods The three test plants: vetivergrass (Vetiveria zizanioides L.); cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica L.); and carabaograss (Paspalum conjugatum L.) were grown in individual plastic bags containing soils with 75 mg kg⁻¹ (37.5 kg ha⁻¹) and 150 mg kg⁻¹ (75 kg ha⁻¹) of Pb, respectively. The Pb contents of the test plants and the soil were analyzed before and after experimental treatments using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. This study was laid out following a 3 × 2 factorial experiment in a completely randomized design. Results On the vegetative characteristics of the test plants, vetivergrass registered the highest whole plant dry matter weight (33.85–39.39 Mg ha⁻¹). Carabaograss had the lowest herbage mass production of 4.12 Mg ha⁻¹ and 5.72 Mg ha⁻¹ from soils added with 75 and 150 mg Pb kg⁻¹, respectively. Vetivergrass also had the highest percent plant survival which meant it best tolerated the Pb contamination in soils. Vetivergrass registered the highest rate of Pb absorption (10.16 ± 2.81 mg kg⁻¹). This was followed by cogongrass (2.34 ± 0.52 mg kg⁻¹) and carabaograss with a mean Pb level of 0.49 ± 0.56 mg kg⁻¹. Levels of Pb among the three grasses (shoots + roots) did not vary significantly with the amount of Pb added (75 and 150 mg kg⁻¹) to the soil. Discussion Vetivergrass yielded the highest biomass; it also has the greatest amount of Pb absorbed (roots + shoots). This can be attributed to the highly extensive root system of vetivergrass with the presence of an enormous amount of root hairs. Extensive root system denotes more contact to nutrients in soils, therefore more likelihood of nutrient absorption and Pb uptake. The efficiency of plants as phytoremediators could be correlated with the plants’ total biomass. This implies that the higher the biomass, the greater the Pb uptake. Plants characteristically exhibit remarkable capacity to absorb what they need and exclude what they do not need. Some plants utilize exclusion mechanisms, where there is a reduced uptake by the roots or a restricted transport of the metals from root to shoots. Combination of high metal accumulation and high biomass production results in the most metal removal from the soil. Conclusions The present study indicated that vetivergrass possessed many beneficial characteristics to uptake Pb from contaminated soil. It was the most tolerant and could grow in soil contaminated with high Pb concentration. Cogongrass and carabaograss are also potential phytoremediators since they can absorb small amount of Pb in soils, although cogongrass is more tolerant to Pb-contaminated soil compared with carabaograss. The important implication of our findings is that vetivergrass can be used for phytoextraction on sites contaminated with high levels of heavy metals; particularly Pb. Recommendations and Perspectives High levels of Pb in localized areas are still a concern especially in urban areas with high levels of traffic, near Pb smelters, battery plants, or industrial facilities that burn fuel ending up in water and soils. The grasses used in the study, and particularly vetivergrass, can be used to phytoremediate urban soil with various contaminations by planting these grasses in lawns and public parks. ESS-Submission Editor: Dr. Willie Peijnenburg (wjgm.peijnenburg@rivm.nl)