Assessment of chlorophyll-a variations in high- and low-flow seasons in Apalachicola Bay by MODIS 250-m remote sensing

Chlorophyll-a (chl-a) is considered as a primary indicator for water quality and foods for oyster growth in Apalachicola estuarine ecosystem. Assessment of chl-a concentration variation in response to river inflow is important for estuarine environmental research and management. In this study, remote sensing analysis has been conducted to evaluate the effects of river inflow on chlorophyll concentrations in Apalachicola Bay of Florida in the northeast Gulf of Mexico. A remote sensing model for chl-a was improved and applied to map spatial distributions of chl-a by using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 250-m resolution imageries in high-flow and low-flow seasons in 2001 and 2008. Chl-a values approximately ranged from the minimum 6 μg/l to the maximum 29 μg/l in the study period. Maximum chl-a concentration in high-flow season was almost twice above that in low-flow season. The averaged mean and minimum chl-a level in the high-flow season were approximately 42 and 28 % higher than those in low-flow season, respectively. The remote sensing mapping of chl-a was able to show spatial variations of chl-a in the entire bay under different flow conditions, which indicated its advantage over the traditional field data sampling for monitoring water quality over a large area of estuary. The MODIS 250-m remote sensing regression model presented from this study can be used to support monitoring and assessment of the spatial chl-a distribution in the bay for environmental research and management in Apalachicola Bay.     

Determination of selected steroid hormones in some surface water around animal farms in Cape Town using HPLC-DAD

In this study, a method for the simultaneous determination of two steroid hormones, 17β-estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3), and a hormone mimicking polycarbonate, bisphenol-A (BPA), was developed and validated. This was thereafter used for the determination of the levels of the hormones in surface water collected around some livestock farms. The sensitivity of the method allowed the LODs and LOQs of the hormones and mimic hormone in the range 1.14–2.510 and 3.42–7.53 μg/L, respectively. The results revealed wide variability in the concentrations of E2 and E3, while BPA was not detected at any of the sampling stations. The concentration of E3 ranged between <1.14 and 45.5 μg/L (N = 120) in station 2 water. The highest concentration of E2 (15.7 μg/L, N = 80) was observed in water from station 1. The varied concentrations may be connected with the nature and sources of release, inconsistencies in analyte distribution due to dynamics of water flow pattern and the physical/chemical properties of the receiving water bodies.     

Perchlorate contamination of groundwater from fireworks manufacturing area in South India

Perchlorate contamination was investigated in groundwater and surface water from Sivakasi and Madurai in the Tamil Nadu State of South India. Sensitive determination of perchlorate (LOQ?=?0.005 μg/L) was achieved by large-volume (500 μL) injection ion chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Concentrations of perchlorate were <0.005–7,690 μg/L in groundwater (n?=?60), <0.005–30.2 μg/L in surface water (n?=?11), and 0.063–0.393 μg/L in tap water (n?=?3). Levels in groundwater were significantly higher in the fireworks factory area than in the other locations, indicating that the fireworks and safety match industries are principal sources of perchlorate pollution. This is the first study that reports the contamination status of perchlorate in this area and reveals firework manufacture to be the pollution source. Since perchlorate levels in 17 out of 57 groundwater samples from Sivakasi, and none from Madurai, exceeded the drinking water guideline level proposed by USEPA (15 μg/L), further investigation on human health is warranted.     

Effects of northeast monsoon on trace metal distribution in the South China Sea off Peninsular Malaysia

Concentrations of trace metals in the South China Sea (SCS) were determined off the coast of Terengganu during the months of May and November 2007. The concentrations of dissolved and particulate metals were in the range of 0.019–0.194 μg/L and 50–365 μg/g, respectively, for cadmium (Cd), 0.05–0.45 μg/L and 38–3,570 μg/g for chromium (Cr), 0.05–3.54 μg/L and 21–1,947 μg/g for manganese (Mn), and 0.03–0.49 μg/L and 2–56,982 μg/g for lead (Pb). The order of mean log K _D found was Cd?>?Cr?>?Pb?>?Mn. The study suggests that the primary sources of these metals are discharges from the rivers which drain into the SCS, in particular the Dungun River, which flows in close proximity to agricultural areas and petrochemical industries. During the northeast monsoon, levels of particulate metals in the bottom water samples near the shore were found to be much higher than during the dry season, the probable result of re-suspension of the metals from the bottom sediments.     

Determination of urinary levels of Bisphenol A in a Turkish population

Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals that is widely used in common consumer products. The aim of this study was to report the total urinary BPA concentrations (free plus conjugated) in 200 urine samples (children: 57; male: 74; female: 69) obtained from residents of a Mediterranean city, Mersin. Analyses were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) and for assessing environmental exposure to free BPA and its major metabolite bisphenol A glucuronide (BPAG) in human urine were determinated. Our results indicated that the free BPA and BPAG concentrations were in the range of 0.06-0.99 μg/g creatinine and 0.24-615 μg/g creatinine, respectively. No statistically significant difference obtained in BPA concentrations between genders (male and female) or domicile of residence (rural and urban) (p?>?0.05). In our study, the mean level of detected free BPA was 0.46 μg/g creatinine in the urban area and 0.37 μg/g creatinine in the rural area. The average amount of BPAG was 60.56 μg/g creatinine in the urban area and 30.28 μg/g creatinine in the rural area. The data demonstrate that determined amount of total BPA in the present study is lower than the results of similar studies conducted in developed countries. There is no data about the levels of BPA in humans and environment in Turkey. Because of this reason, present study is very important since it is the first study in Turkey which determined the concentrations of free BPA and total BPA in human.     

An investigation of arsenic contamination in Peninsular Malaysia based on Centella asiatica and soil samples

The first objective of this study was to provide data of arsenic (As) levels in Peninsular Malaysia based on soil samples and accumulation of As in Centella asiatica collected from 12 sampling sites in Peninsular Malaysia. The second objective was to assess the accumulation of As in transplanted C. asiatica between control and semi-polluted or polluted sites. Four sites were selected which were UPM (clean site), Balakong (semi-polluted site), Seri Kembangan (semi-polluted site) and Juru (polluted site). The As concentrations of plant and soil samples were determined by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis. The As levels ranged from 9.38 to 57.05 μg/g dw in soils, 0.21 to 4.33 μg/g dw in leaves, 0.18 to 1.83 μg/g dw in stems and 1.32–20.76 μg/g dw in roots. All sampling sites had As levels exceeding the CCME guideline (12 μg/g dw) except for Kelantan, P. Pauh, and Senawang with P. Klang having the highest As in soil (57.05 μg/g dw). In C. asiatica, As accumulation was highest in roots followed by leaves and stems. When the As level in soils were higher, the uptake of As in plants would also be increased. After the transplantation of plants to semi-polluted and polluted sites for 3 weeks, all concentration factors were greater than 50 % of the initial As level. The elimination factor was around 39 % when the plants were transplanted back to the clean sites for 3 weeks. The findings of the present study indicated that the leaves, stems and roots of C. asiatica are ideal biomonitors of As contamination. The present data results the most comprehensive data obtained on As levels in Malaysia.     

Occurrence of naproxen,ibuprofen, and diclofenac residues in wastewater and river water of KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa

The present paper reports a detailed study that is based on the monitoring of naproxen, ibuprofen, and diclofenac in Mbokodweni River and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located around the city of Durban in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Target compounds were extracted from water samples using a multi-template molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction prior to separation and quantification on a high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with photo diode array detector. The analytical method yielded the detection limits of 0.15, 1.00, and 0.63 μg/L for naproxen, ibuprofen, and diclofenac, respectively. Solid-phase extraction method was evaluated for its performance using deionized water samples that were spiked with 5 and 50 μg/L of target compounds. Recoveries were greater than 80% for all target compounds with RSD values in the range of 4.1 to 10%. Target compounds were detected in most wastewater and river water samples with ibuprofen being the most frequently detected pharmaceutical. Maximum concentrations detected in river water for naproxen, ibuprofen, and diclofenac were 6.84, 19.2, and 9.69 μg/L, respectively. The concentrations of target compounds found in effluent and river water samples compared well with some studies. The analytical method employed in this work is fast, selective, sensitive, and affordable; therefore, it can be used routinely to evaluate the occurrence of acidic pharmaceuticals in South African water resources.     

Assessment of indoor and outdoor particulate air pollution at an urban background site in Iran

The relationship between indoor and outdoor particulate air pollution was investigated at an urban background site on the Payambar Azam Campus of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences in Sari, Northern Iran. The concentration of particulate matter sized with a diameter less than 1 μm (PM_1.0), 2.5 μm (PM_2.5), and 10 μm (PM₁₀) was evaluated at 5 outdoor and 12 indoor locations. Indoor sites included classrooms, corridors, and office sites in four university buildings. Outdoor PM concentrations were characterized at five locations around the university campus. Indoor and outdoor PM measurements (1-min resolution) were conducted in parallel during weekday mornings and afternoons. No difference found between indoor PM₁₀ (50.1 ± 32.1 μg/m³) and outdoor PM₁₀ concentrations (46.5 ± 26.0 μg/m³), indoor PM_2.5 (22.6 ± 17.4 μg/m³) and outdoor PM_2.5 concentration (22.2 ± 15.4 μg/m³), or indoor PM_1.0 (14.5 ± 13.4 μg/m³) and outdoor mean PM_1.0 concentrations (14.2 ± 12.3 μg/m³). Despite these similar concentrations, no correlations were found between outdoor and indoor PM levels. The present findings are not only of importance for the potential health effects of particulate air pollution on people who spend their daytime over a period of several hours in closed and confined spaces located at a university campus but also can inform regulatory about the improvement of indoor air quality, especially in developing countries.     

Distribution and source analysis of aluminum in rivers near Xi’an City, China

To study the status and source of aluminum (Al) contamination, a total of 21 sampling sites along six rivers near Xi’an City (Shaanxi province, China) were investigated during 2008–2010. The results indicated that the average concentration of total Al (Al_t) in the six rivers increased by 1.6 times from 2008 to 2010. The spatial distribution of Al_t concentrations in the rivers near Xi’an City was significantly different, ranged from 367 μg/L (Bahe River) to 1,978 μg/L (Taiping River). The Al_t concentration was highest near an industrial area for pulp and paper-making (2,773 μg/L), where the Al level greatly exceeded the water quality criteria of both the USA (Criterion Continuous Concentration, 87 μg/L) and Canada (100 μg/L). The average concentration of inorganic monometric aluminum (Al_im) was 72 μg/L which would pose threats to fishes and other aquatic lives in the rivers. The concentrations of exchangeable Al (Al_ex) in the sediment of the Taiping River sampled were relatively high, making it to be an alternative explanation of increasing Al concentrations in the rivers near Xi’an City. Furthermore, an increasing Al level has been detected in the upstream watershed near Xi’an City in recent years, which might indicate another notable pollution source of Al.     

Assessment of organochlorine pesticides and plasticisers in the Selangor River basin and possible pollution sources

A study on the quality of water abstracted for potable use was conducted in the Selangor River basin from November 2008 to July 2009. Seven sampling sites representing the intake points of water treatment plants in the basin were selected to determine the occurrence and level of 15 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), six phthalate esters (PAEs) and bisphenol A (BPA). Results indicated OCPs were still detected regularly in 66.1 % of the samples with the Σ₁₅OCPs ranging from 0.6–25.2 ng/L. The first data on PAEs contamination in the basin revealed Σ₆PAEs concentrations were between 39.0 and 1,096.6 ng/L with a median concentration of 186.0 ng/L while BPA concentration ranged from <1.2 to 120.0 ng/L. Although di-n-butyl phthalate was detected in all the samples, concentrations of di-ethyl(hexyl)phthalate were higher. Sampling sites located downstream recorded the highest concentrations, together with samples collected during the dry season. Comparison of the detected contaminants with the Department of Environment Water Quality Index (DOE-WQI) showed some agreement between the concentration and the current classification of stream water. While the results suggest that the sites were only slightly polluted and suitable to be used as drinking water source, its presence is cause for concern especially to the fragile firefly “Pteroptyx tener” ecosystem located further downstream.     

Assessing organic contaminant fluxes from contaminated sediments following dam removal in an urbanized river

In this study, methods and approaches were developed and tested to assess changes in contaminant fluxes resulting from dam removal in a riverine system. Sediment traps and passive samplers were deployed to measure particulate and dissolved polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the water column prior to and following removal of a small, low-head dam in the Pawtuxet River, an urbanized river located in Cranston, RI, USA. During the study, concentrations of particulate and dissolved PAHs ranged from 21.5 to 103 μg/g and from 68 to 164 ng/L, respectively. Overall, temporal trends of PAHs showed no increases in either dissolved or particulate phases following removal of the dam. Dissolved concentrations of PCBs were very low, remaining below 1.72 ng/L at all sites. Particulate PCB concentrations across sites and time showed slightly greater variability, ranging from 80 to 469 ng/g, but with no indication that dam removal influenced any increases. Particulate PAHs and PCBs were sampled continuously at the site located below the dam and did not show sustained increases in concentration resulting from dam removal. The employment of passive sampling technology and sediment traps was highly effective in monitoring the concentrations and flux of contaminants moving through the river system. Variations in river flow had no effect on the concentration of contaminants in the dissolved or particulate phases, but did influence the flux rate of contaminants exiting the river. Overall, dam removal did not cause measurable sediment disturbance or increase the concentration or fluxes of dissolved or particulate PAHs and PCBs. This is due in large part to low volumes of impounded sediment residing above the dam and highly armored sediments in the river channel, which limited erosion. Results from this study will be used to improve methods and approaches that assess the short- and long-term impacts ecological restoration activities such as dam removal have on the release and transport of sediment-bound contaminants.     

Implication of two in-stream processes in the fate of nutrients discharged by sewage system into a temporary river

The aim of this study was to better understand the fate of nutrients discharged by sewage treatment plants into an intermittent Mediterranean river, during a low-flow period. Many pollutants stored in the riverbed during the low-flow period can be transferred to the downstream environments during flood events. The study focused on two processes that affect the fate and the transport of nutrients, a physical process (retention in the riverbed sediments) and a biological process (denitrification). A spatial campaign was carried out during a low-flow period to characterize the nutrient contents of both water and sediments in the Vène River. The results showed high nutrient concentrations in the water column downstream of the treated wastewater disposal (up to 13,315 μg N/L for ammonium and 2,901 μg P/L for total phosphorus). Nutrient concentrations decreased rapidly downstream of the disposal whereas nutrient contents in the sediments increased (up to 1,898 and 784 μg/g for total phosphorus and Kjeldahl nitrogen, respectively). According to an in situ experiment using sediment boxes placed in the riverbed for 85 days, we estimated that the proportion of nutrients trapped in the sediments represents 25% (respectively 10%) of phosphorus (respectively nitrogen) loads lost from the water column. In parallel, laboratory tests indicated that denitrification occurred in the Vène River, and we estimated that denitrification likely coupled to nitrification processes during the 85 days of the experiment was significantly involved in the removal of nitrogen loads (up to 38%) from the water column and was greater than accumulation processes.     

Bioaccumulation of HCH isomers in selected macroinvertebrates from the Elbe River: sources and environmental implications

Sediments of the Elbe River have been extremely polluted by contaminants originating from previous large-scale hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) production and the application of γ-HCH (lindane) in its catchment in the second half of the twentieth century. In order to gain knowledge on bioaccumulation processes at lower trophic levels, field investigations of HCHs in macroinvertebrates were carried out along the longitudinal profile of the Elbe and tributary. Among the sites studied, concentrations in macroinvertebrates ranged within five orders of magnitude (0.01–100 μg/kg). In general, lower values of HCH isomers were observed at all Czech sites (mostly <1 μg/kg) compared with those in Germany. At the most contaminated site, Spittelwasser brook (a tributary of the Mulde), extremely high concentrations were measured (up to 234 μg/kg α-HCH and 587 μg/kg β-HCH in Hydropsychidae). In contrast, the Ob?íství site, though also influenced by HCH production facilities, showed only negligibly elevated values (mostly <1 μg/kg). Results showed that fairly high levels of α-HCH and β-HCH compared to γ-HCH can still be detected in aquatic environments of the Elbe catchment, and these concentrations are decreasing over time to a lesser extent than γ-HCH. Higher HCH concentrations in sediments in the springtime are considered to be the result of erosion and transport processes during and after spring floods, and lower concentrations at sites downstream are thought to be caused by the time lapse involved in the transportation of contaminated particles from upstream. In addition, comparison with fish (bream) data from the literature revealed no increase in tissue concentrations between invertebrates and fish.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations,mutagenicity, and Microtox® acute toxicity testing of Peruvian crude oil and oil-contaminated water and sediment

The oil industry is a major source of contamination in Peru, and wastewater and sediments containing oil include harmful substances that may have acute and chronic effects. This study determined polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations by GC/MS, mutagenicity using TA98 and TA100 bacterial strains with and without metabolic activation in the Muta-ChromoPlate? test, and Microtox® 5-min EC₅₀ values of Peruvian crude oil, and water and sediment pore water from the vicinity of San José de Saramuro on the Marañón River and Villa Trompeteros on the Corrientes River in Loreto, Peru. The highest total PAH concentration in both areas was found in water (Saramuro?=?210.15 μg/ml, Trompeteros?=?204.66 μg/ml). Total PAH concentrations in water from San José de Saramuro ranged from 9.90 to 210.15 μg/ml (mean?=?66.48 μg/ml), while sediment pore water concentrations ranged from 2.19 to 70.41 μg/ml (mean?=?24.33 μg/ml). All water samples tested from Saramuro and Trompeteros sites, and one out of four sediment pore water samples from Trompeteros, were found to be mutagenic (P?<?0.001). One sediment pore water sample in Saramuro was determined to have a measurable toxicity (Microtox EC₅₀?=?335.1 mg/l), and in Trompeteros, the EC₅₀ in water and sediment pore water ranged from 25.67 to 133.86 mg/l. Peruvian crude oil was mutagenic using the TA98 strain with metabolic activation, and the EC₅₀ was 17.18 mg/l. The two areas sampled had very high PAH concentrations that were most likely associated with oil activities, but did not lead to acute toxic effects. However, since most of the samples were mutagenic, it is thought that there is a greater potential for chronic effects.     

Pharmaceuticals as emerging organic contaminants in Umgeni River water system,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The occurrences of pharmaceuticals and personal care products as emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) have been reported in several countries of the world except from African countries. This study was therefore conducted to investigate the occurrence of nine antibiotics, five antipyretics, atenolol, bezafibrate, and caffeine in wastewater and surface water samples from the Umgeni River. The water samples were extracted with solid-phase extraction using hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) and C-18 cartridges for the acidic and neutral drugs, respectively. The quantification was carried out with high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) using the standard addition method. The method limits of detections were in the range of 0.14–0.97 μg/L while the recoveries were between 53.8 and 108.1 %. The wastewater had 100 % occurrence of the analytes studied, with caffeine having the highest concentration at 61?±?5 μg/L and nalidixic acid being the most observed antibiotic at 31?±?3 μg/L. The waste treatment process reduced the influent concentrations by 43.0–94.2 % before discharge except for atenolol removal that is lower. The concentrations of the analytes were lower in the surface water with most compounds having concentrations below 10 μg/L except acetaminophen and atenolol. The estuary mouth and Blue Lagoon had the highest concentrations of some of the compounds in surface water which depict downstream load. The factors governing the fate and mobility of these compounds in this environment are not fully understood yet and will require further studies.     

Monitoring the impact of urban effluents on mineral contents of water and sediments of four sites of the river Ravi, Lahore

We assessed the impact of urban effluents on the concentrations of selected minerals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn, Mn, Ni, and Hg) in river Ravi before and after its passage through Lahore city. Water and sediment samples were collected from three lowly to highly polluted downstream sites (Shahdera (B), Sunder (C), and Balloki (D)) alongside the least polluted upstream site (Siphon (A)) during high and low river flow seasons. All the mineral concentrations increased up to site C but stabilized at site D, showing some recovery as compared to the third sampling site. The trend of mean mineral concentration was significantly higher during the low than the high flow season at all the sites. The mean Hg concentrations approached 0.14 and 0.12 mg/l at site A which increased (%) up to 107 and 25 % at site B, 1,700 and 1,317 % at site C, and 1,185 and 1,177 % at site D during low and high river flows, respectively. All mineral concentrations were much higher in the sediment than the water samples. Mean Cd (917 %), Cr (461 %), Cu (300 %), Fe (254 %), Pb (179 %), Zn (170 %), Mn (723 %), Ni (853 %), and Hg (1,699 %) concentrations were higher in riverbed sediments sampled from site C in comparison with the sample collected at site A during low flow season. The domestic and industrial discharges from Lahore city have created undesirable water qualities during the low river flow season. As majority of the mineral levels in the river Ravi were higher than the permissible and safe levels, this is of immediate concern for riverine fish consumers and the users of water for recreation and even irrigation. The use of these waters may pose health risks, and therefore, urgent intervention strategies are needed to minimize river water pollution and its impact on fish-consuming communities of this study area and beyond.     

Occurrence of haloacetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water of Taiwan

In this study, water samples were collected from 86 water treatment plants for analysis of haloacetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) from February to March, 2007 and from July to August, 2007. Both seasonal and geographical variations of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water of Taiwan were presented. The results showed that the five HAA concentrations (HAA5) were 1.0–38.9 μg/L in the winter and 0.2–46.7 μg/L in the summer; and the total THMs were ND-99.4 μg/L in the winter and ND-133.2 μg/L in the summer. For samples taken from the main Taiwan island, dichloroacetic acid (29.4–31.7%) and trichloroacetic acid (25.3–27.6%) were the two major HAA species, and trichloromethane was the major THM species (49.9–62.2%) in finished water. For water treatment plants located on the offshore islands outside of Taiwan, high bromide concentration was found in raw water, and higher percentage of brominated THMs and HAAs were formed in the overall formation. A statistically significant (P?<?0.005) logarithmic linear regression model was found to be useful to describe the correlations between TTHM and HAA5 or nine HAAs (HAA5?=?1.219 ×TTHM ^0.754, R ²?=?0.658; HAA9?=?1.824 ×TTHM ^0.735, R ²?=?0.678). No apparent difference was observed for DBPs concentrations between finished water and distribution samples in this study.     

Toxicity of Hg, Cu and Zn on early developmental stages of the European clam (Ruditapes decussatus) with potential application in marine water quality assessment

The toxicity of mercury, zinc and copper on sperm viability, fertilisation and embryogenesis of Ruditapes decussatus was examined. Cu did not affect sperm viability at all the concentrations tested. Conversely, the Zn and Hg significantly (P?<?0.01) reduced sperm viability only at the highest concentration (respectively 512 and 256 μg/l). Cu caused a significant decrease (p?<?0.05) of less than 6% in the fertilisation rate at 128 μg/l and Zn of up to 13% at 64 μg/l. Hg significantly (p?<?0.01) inhibited fertilisation at concentrations as low as 32 μg/l. The median effective concentrations (EC50) reducing rates of embryogenesis by 50% were 21.1 μg Hg/l (0.1 μM), 46.3 μg Cu/l (0.72 μM) and 43.4 μg Zn/l. Therefore, Hg is up to seven times more toxic than Cu (on a molar basis). Ecotoxicity of mercury on larvae survival was also assessed in this work. Result showed a significant (p?<?0.05) reduction of survival after exposure to 4 and 12 μg/l of Hg. The fertilisation rate and embryogenesis were the most sensitive endpoints, although the latter is more advisable for routine assessment of seawater quality because of its greater sensibility.     

Statistical analysis of arsenic contamination in drinking water in a city of Iran and its modeling using GIS

In this research, probable arsenic contamination in drinking water in the city of Ardabil was studied in 163 samples during four seasons. In each season, sampling was carried out randomly in the study area. Results were analyzed statistically applying SPSS 19 software, and the data was also modeled by Arc GIS 10.1 software. The maximum permissible arsenic concentration in drinking water defined by the World Health Organization and Iranian national standard is 10 μg/L. Statistical analysis showed 75, 88, 47, and 69% of samples in autumn, winter, spring, and summer, respectively, had concentrations higher than the national standard. The mean concentrations of arsenic in autumn, winter, spring, and summer were 19.89, 15.9, 10.87, and 14.6 μg/L, respectively, and the overall average in all samples through the year was 15.32 μg/L. Although GIS outputs indicated that the concentration distribution profiles changed in four consecutive seasons, variance analysis of the results showed that statistically there is no significant difference in arsenic levels in four seasons.     

Blood biomonitoring of metals in subjects living near abandoned mining and active industrial areas

A human blood biomonitoring campaign to detect the environmental exposure to metals (Cd, Cu, Cr, Mn, Pb and Zn) in 265 subjects was performed in the South-Western part of Sardinia (an Italian island) that is a particular area with a great history of coal and metal mining (Pb/Zn mainly) activities and large industrial structures (as metallurgy). Subjects living near the industrial plant area had geometric means (GM) of blood Cd (0.79 μg/l), Cu (971 μg/l), Mn (12.2 μg/l), and Pb (55.7 μg/l) significantly higher than controls (Cd, 0.47 μg/l; Cu, 900 μg/l; Mn 9.98 μg/l; Pb, 26.5 μg/l) and than people living nearby the past mining sites. Subjects living next to one dismissed mine were statistically higher in blood Cu (GM, 1,022 μg/l) and Pb (GM, 41.4 μg/l) concentrations than controls. No differences were observed in people living in the different mining sites, and this might be related to the decennial disclosure of mines and the adoption of environmental remediation programmes. Some interindividual variables influenced blood biomonitoring data, as smoke and age for Cd, gender for Cu, age, sex and alcohol for Pb, and age for Zn. Moreover, blood metal levels of the whole population were similar to reference values representative of the Sardinian population and acceptably safe according to currently available health guidelines.