Assessing disproportionate costs to achieve good ecological status of water bodies in a Mediterranean river basin

Water management is becoming increasingly important as the demand for water grows, diversifies, and includes more complex environmental concerns. The Water Framework Directive (WFD) seeks to achieve a good ecological status for all European Community water bodies by 2015. To achieve this objective, economic consideration of water management must be given to all decision-making processes. Exemption (time or level of stringency) from the objectives of the EU Directive can be justified by proving that the cost of implementing measures is disproportionate to the benefits. This paper addresses the issue of disproportionate costs through a cost-benefit analysis (CBA). To predict the costs, the function costs method is used. The quantification of environmental benefits is more complex, because they are not determined by the market. As an alternative to stated preference methods, we use the distance function approach to estimate the environmental benefits of improving water quality. We then apply this methodological approach to a Mediterranean River Basin in Spain. The results show that the achievement of good status could not be rejected based on the criterion of disproportionate costs in this river basin. This paper illustrates that CBA is a useful tool to inform policy and decision making. Furthermore, it is shown that economics, particularly the valuation of environmental benefits, plays a crucial role in fulfilling the environmental objectives of the WFD.     

水质标准中指示微生物的发展及现状

饮用水病原微生物污染是公共卫生面临的主要威胁之一,微生物监测在水质监测中的必要性日益受到人们的认可。在实际工作中,一般是通过检测指示微生物间接反映病原微生物的存在。通过调研国内外各组织、机构颁布的水质标准发现,近年来,我国环境质量标准和污染物排放标准中对于指示微生物的选择有从总大肠菌群向粪大肠菌群和大肠埃希氏菌(E.coli)转变的趋势,而美国环保署、欧盟、世界卫生组织、澳大利亚国家健康与医疗研究委员会等根据最新的流行病学证据,强调了大肠埃希氏菌(E.coli)、肠球菌(Enterococci)与粪便污染的相关性更强,可用于替代大肠菌群。建议我国在后续水质标准中对微生物指标进行增补修订时,参考国外经验,形成集成多种指示微生物与多种特定病原体的监测指标体系,以更好地保护环境功能和民众健康。     

Measurement of Atmospheric Deposition Under Forest Canopies: Some Recommendations for Equipment and Sampling Design

Quantification of the forest water flux provides valuable information for the understanding of forest ecosystem functioning. As such, throughfall (and stemflow to a lesser extent) has been frequently measured. Although throughfall collection may seem relatively simple, the requirements to obtain reliable estimates are often underestimated. This review addresses the criteria to take into account when working out the sampling procedure, from the selection of equipment to implementation in the field. Sound sampling of the forest water flux is difficult due to its high spatial and temporal variation. The high costs entailed by the ideal sampling design often prohibit its implementation. Different procedures are available, some of which are compromises between the aim of the study (monitoring or experimental study, short or long term objectives, absolute or relative estimates, quality of the assessment to be achieved) and the available means.     

Linking Land Cover and Water Quality in New York City’S Water Supply Watersheds

The Catskill/Delaware reservoirs supply 90% of New York City’s drinking water. The City has implemented a series of watershed protection measures, including land acquisition, aimed at preserving water quality in the Catskill/Delaware watersheds. The objective of this study was to examine how relationships between landscape and surface water measurements change between years. Thirty-two drainage areas delineated from surface water sample points (total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and fecal coliform bacteria concentrations) were used in step-wise regression analyses to test landscape and surface-water quality relationships. Two measurements of land use, percent agriculture and percent urban development, were positively related to water quality and consistently present in all regression models. Together these two land uses explained 25 to 75% of the regression model variation. However, the contribution of agriculture to water quality condition showed a decreasing trend with time as overall agricultural land cover decreased. Results from this study demonstrate that relationships between land cover and surface water concentrations of total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and fecal coliform bacteria counts over a large area can be evaluated using a relatively simple geographic information system method. Land managers may find this method useful for targeting resources in relation to a particular water quality concern, focusing best management efforts, and maximizing benefits to water quality with minimal costs.The United States Environmental Protection Agency through its Office of Research and Development funded and managed the research described here. It has been subjected to Agency’s administrative review and approved for publication as an EPA document.     

True and false positive rates in maximum contaminant level tests

The U.S. Environment Protection Agency (EPA) is promulgating a revised national primary drinking water regulation (NPDWR) which includes a monthly sample size and maximum contaminant level (MCL) for total coliform bacteria in public water systems. No previous quantification has been made of the coliform content that must be present in the sampled water in order for an MCL to be exceeded. This paper presents a method for evaluating the coliform level an MCL will detect with likelihood P.Our approach is to treat an MCL as a decision rule, with Type I (false positive) and Type II (false negative) error rates. The stringency of an MCL is quantified as the mean coliform level in the sampled system that it will detect with likelihood P. MCLs are contrasted on stringency by comparing the mean coliform level each targets for detection, with fixed error rates.Interim rules (NIPDWR), in effect since 1975, are shown to vary widely on the coliform content each targets for detection, that is, on stringency. Yes/no decisions on contamination have not been decided based on mean coliform content. Coliform levels permitted in monitored public water systems have been determined by the particular MCL used for testing. The same coliform level will test positively with one MCL 90 times in 100 yet be guaranteed 95% nondetection by a second MCL.EPA's reasonably safe standard for drinking water is reformulated on our stringency criteria. Its proposed monthly MCL is evaluated on its capability for maintaining this standard. Smaller systems will not provide its users this level of protection under the new rule.In addition, our evaluation of the safe water standard on stringency and the rationale for a monthly MCL require that coliform levels be identically distributed (i.d.) across month and sampled system. Empirical data strongly refute this model and question the utility of a monthly MCL.This work suggests an alternative, single sample MCL, with repeat sampling for verification, which can be configured to provide monitoring to discover mean coliform values at any level, in any size of system, at minimal extra cost.     

基于超标风险改进的加拿大水质指数及其应用

将三角模糊数和超标风险度引入加拿大水质指数(CCME-WQI),建立了能够反映超标风险的改进型CCMEWQI。改进后的CCME-WQI通过计算水质指标的超标隶属度与超标风险,可实现对水质不确定性与超标风险的综合考量。在此基础上,评价了重庆市某水库2016—2019年水质状况。结果显示:改进后的CCME-WQI的评价结果较仅反映最差指标类别的单因子评价法的评价结果更为全面、客观。基于超标风险改进的CCME-WQI考虑了即将超标但尚未超标的水质因子存在的风险,在结果显示上比改进前的CCME-WQI更为全面、严格,更适用于评价一段时间内的水体污染程度和超标状态。     

A new assessment method for urbanization environmental impact: urban environment entropy model and its application

The thermodynamic law is one of the most widely used scientific principles. The comparability between the environmental impact of urbanization and the thermodynamic entropy was systematically analyzed. Consequently, the concept "Urban Environment Entropy" was brought forward and the "Urban Environment Entropy" model was established for urbanization environmental impact assessment in this study. The model was then utilized in a case study for the assessment of river water quality in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone. The results indicated that the assessing results of the model are consistent to that of the equalized synthetic pollution index method. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Urban Environment Entropy model has high reliability and can be applied widely in urbanization environmental assessment research using many different environmental parameters.     

The value of the environment – Is it a matter of approach?

This paper discusses why estimates of the benefits of reduced air pollution differ in accordance with the approach used. Estimates based on bottom-up studies of the damage costs related to air pollution usually turn out much lower than estimates based on assessments of the utility of reduced air pollution, obtained for instance by willingness to pay assessments. This is usually explained by the fact that the willingness to pay approach includes the utility aspect of non-market values, and for this reason, it is often preferred to the damage cost approach. This is, however, not the whole story. The paper shows why alternative approaches should not be considered as being in conflict, but rather as means to get supplementary information necessary to put a value on environmental quality. Information from bottom-up assessments of damage costs and from studies of the willingness to pay is used in a macroeconomic model to carry out an evaluation of the social costs of energy saving measures in Hungary.     

A phycocyanin probe as a tool for monitoring cyanobacteria in freshwater bodies

In many countries, the presence of cyanobacteria in freshwater bodies used for both drinking water and recreational purposes is under increasing public health attention. Water managers are considering how to implement monitoring that leads to a minimization of the risks incurred by the users of potentially contaminated sites. To address this question, this study involved assessing the performance of a submersible probe for measuring phycocyanin-specific fluorescence as a function of cyanobacterial biomass, with the aim of applying it as a tool for surveillance management. Its advantages and limits compared to more traditional analyses are discussed. The monitoring of cyanobacteria in the water bodies of western France was carried out using a minifluorimeter specific to the fluorescence of phycocyanin, a pigment specific to cyanobacteria. The results are compared with the analyses recommended by the World Health Organisation (chlorophyll a and cell counting). This study based on nearly 800 samples shows a significant correlation between the phycocyanin content and the cyanobacterial biomass, expressed as the number of cells per mL (R2 = 0.73). This submersible probe is simple and rapid to use, making it possible to take into account horizontal and vertical heterogeneities in the proliferation growth. In this way, we are able to detect at an early stage the conditions that could potentially lead to a risk, in order to start sampling. Due to its sensitivity, this tool proves suitable for monitoring aimed at reducing the risks incurred by the users of contaminated sites and launching preventative actions. The use of the phycocyanin probe provides an effective tool to complement traditional analyses of cyanobacterial presence. It is suggested that a surveillance protocol based on phycocyanin concentration can significantly improved the accuracy of the extent of cyanobacterial bloom development in the light of spatial and temporal variabilities associated with these occurrences.     

Regulators' perceptions of environmental impact assessment (EIA) benefits in a sustainable development context

The costs of conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are well known. Yet the benefits of EIA are much more intangible, leading to a situation where some question its value as the tool of choice for informing decision makers of the sustainability consequences of their actions. Exponents of EIA have thus called for more research on the benefits of EIA in order to provide better evidence on its costs versus benefits, and therefore its value as a decision-making tool. This paper contributes to this evidence by exploring the perceived potential benefits and perceived realised benefits of EIA from a regulators' perspective in the context of sustainable development. Using South Africa as a case study, one third of all the officials responsible for EIA review and decision-making (referred to in this paper as the “regulator”) were surveyed to identify their perceptions of the benefits of EIA, and their ideas on how to bridge the gap between potential benefits and realised benefits. The paper contributes suggestions for the analysis of benefits in a sustainable development context, and identifies some additional benefits currently missing from the literature. In a South African context, the key potential and realised benefits as perceived by regulators are the protection of biodiversity, public participation, access to information, mitigation of environmental impacts, and legal compliance and enforcement.     

Statistical analysis of effects of measures against agricultural pollution

The Norwegian Government has initiated a plan to reduce agricultural pollution. One of the projects in this plan is aimed at investigating the effects of different measures in order to evaluate their effects and costs.A set of experiments has been designed to estimate the effects of measures to reduce or control the use of fertilizers and erosion. The project started in 1985. It comprises continuous measurements in two water courses in each of four counties: one test drainage area where the relevant measures were implemented at the end of 1986, and one reference area where no specific measures are carried out. A series of chemical parameters are measured together with runoff and other hydrological and meteorogical data.The paper provides a preliminary analysis of the data collected in one of the counties during the period June 1985 to April 1988. It contains examples of analysis of covariance to show possible effects of the measures carried out in the test area.Natural variations in precipitation and pollution are large, making it difficult to see the effects of the measures without using statistical techniques to take the multivariability of the problem into account. Some effects can be shown with analysis of covariance. However, the relatively short measurement period makes it neccessary to be careful when interpreting the results.     

Small drinking water systems under spatiotemporal water quality variability: a risk-based performance benchmarking framework

Traditional approaches for benchmarking drinking water systems are binary, based solely on the compliance and/or non-compliance of one or more water quality performance indicators against defined regulatory guidelines/standards. The consequence of water quality failure is dependent on location within a water supply system as well as time of the year (i.e., season) with varying levels of water consumption. Conventional approaches used for water quality comparison purposes fail to incorporate spatiotemporal variability and degrees of compliance and/or non-compliance. This can lead to misleading or inaccurate performance assessment data used in the performance benchmarking process. In this research, a hierarchical risk-based water quality performance benchmarking framework is proposed to evaluate small drinking water systems (SDWSs) through cross-comparison amongst similar systems. The proposed framework (R _WQI framework) is designed to quantify consequence associated with seasonal and location-specific water quality issues in a given drinking water supply system to facilitate more efficient decision-making for SDWSs striving for continuous performance improvement. Fuzzy rule-based modelling is used to address imprecision associated with measuring performance based on singular water quality guidelines/standards and the uncertainties present in SDWS operations and monitoring. This proposed R _WQI framework has been demonstrated using data collected from 16 SDWSs in Newfoundland and Labrador and Quebec, Canada, and compared to the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment WQI, a traditional, guidelines/standard-based approach. The study found that the R _WQI framework provides an in-depth state of water quality and benchmarks SDWSs more rationally based on the frequency of occurrence and consequence of failure events.     

Evaluating the implementation of cleaner production audit demonstration projects

Cleaner production audit demonstration projects were carried out in two Chinese case factories as part of a project co-sponsored by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency and China's State Environmental Protection Administration. Audit results at both factories were characterized by implementation of predominantly low- or no-cost options, notable reductions in water pollution, and incomplete financial benefit analyses. Two reasons explain the financial benefit analyses' apparent weakness. First, factory audit teams were inexperienced in the techniques and procedures used to determine the economic benefits of cleaner production options. Second, motivations project personnel had for participating in the demonstration projects were not centered on attaining the monetary benefits of implementing cleaner production. Instead, other factors related to the international nature of the project, such as a high degree of state level oversight and prestige, were more influential in affecting the behavior of project personnel.     

Method for automatic determination of soybean actual evapotranspiration under open top chambers (OTC) subjected to effects of water stress and air ozone concentration

The present study describes an operational method, based on the Katerji et al. (Eur J Agron 33:218-230, 2010) model, for determining the daily evapotranspiration (ET) for soybean inside open top chambers (OTCs). It includes two functions, calculated day par day, making it possible to separately take into account the effects of concentrations of air ozone and plant water stress. This last function was calibrated in function of the daily values of actual water reserve in the soil. The input variables of the method are (a) the diurnal values of global radiation and temperature, usually measured routinely in a standard weather station; (b) the daily values of the AOT40 index accumulated (accumulated ozone over a threshold of 40 ppb during daylight hours, when global radiation exceeds 50 Wm(-2)) determined inside the OTC; and (c) the actual water reserve in the soil, at the beginning of the trial. The ensemble of these input variables can be automatable; thus, the proposed method could be applied in routine. The ability of the method to take into account contrasting conditions of ozone air concentration and water stress was evaluated over three successive years, for 513 days, in ten crop growth cycles, excluding the days employed to calibrate the method. Tests were carried out in several chambers for each year and take into account the intra- and inter-year variability of ET measured inside the OTCs. On the daily scale, the slope of the linear regression between the ET measured by the soil water balance and that calculated by the proposed method, under different water conditions, are 0.98 and 1.05 for the filtered and unfiltered (or enriched) OTCs with root mean square error (RMSE) equal to 0.77 and 1.07 mm, respectively. On the seasonal scale, the mean difference between measured and calculated ET is equal to +5% and +11% for the filtered and unfiltered OTCs, respectively. The ability of the proposed method to estimate the daily and seasonal ET inside the OTCs is therefore satisfactory following inter- and intra-annual tests. Finally, suggestions about the applications of the proposed method for other species, different from soybean, were also discussed.     

Assessment of liquid disposal originated by uranium enrichment at Aramar Experimental Center São Paulo--Brazil

This work presents a liquid disposal monitoring originated from uranium enrichment process at Aramar Experimental Center from 1990 to 1998. Assessment of uranium, fluorides, ammoniacal nitrogen, chemical oxygen demand, and pH measurements were made in water samples and compared with results achieved in other countries, as North America and India. The liquid disposal evaluation, generated by uranium enrichment process, showed low levels, considering most parameters established by Federal and State Legislation, aiming environmental pollution control. However, uranium levels were above the limits established by Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente, Environment Protection Agency and mainly by the World Health Organization.     

基于AHP-CRITIC综合权重的改进物元可拓模型在地下水水质评价中的应用

权重的确定在地下水水质评价中具有重要作用。利用CRITIC方法对地下水指标进行权重修正,探究该方法对地下水质量评价的适用性。笔者选取代表性指标后,按照一般化学指标、毒理学指标2个层次构建地下水污染评价综合指标体系,建立基于AHP-CRITIC综合权重的改进物元可拓模型对研究区地下水开展质量评价。将开发的评价方法应用于工业园区地下水质量评价发现,该方法能够反映地下水质量状况。结果表明:该评价方法在地下水质量评价过程中,能够兼顾不同指标重要程度差异和水质等级的模糊性,研究区5#点位和10#点位有毒有害重金属超标,应进一步查明原因,提出地下水污染阻断措施。     

Microeconomic measurement of the social costs of environmental regulation

This paper provides a coherent microeconomic framework for defining and measuring the social costs of environmental regulations. A fundamental identity between two alternative means of measuring social costs is established and used to illustrate how erroneous methodologies have crept into the impact assessment literature. Several interesting cases of “ripple effects” including those related to the siting of hazardous waste disposal facilities are considered using this identity.     

Arsenic content in ground and canal waters of Punjab, North-West India

Groundwater is the primary source of drinking water for more than 95% of the population in Punjab. The world health organization and US Environment Protection Agency recently established a new maximum contaminant level of 10 ppb for arsenic in drinking water. The arsenic concentration of deep water tube wells located in Amritsar city used for domestic supply for urban population ranged from 3.8 to 19.1 ppb with mean value of 9.8 ppb. Arsenic content in hand pump water varied from 9 to 85 ppb with a mean value of 29.5 ppb. According to the safe limit of As, 54% and 97%, water samples collected from deep water tube wells and hand pumps, respectively, were not fit for human consumption. Arsenic content in canal water varied from 0.3 to 8.8 ppb with a mean value of 2.89 ppb. Canal water has got higher oxidation potential followed by deep tube well and hand pump water. The present study suggests the regular monitoring of arsenic content in deep tube well and shallow hand pump waters by water testing laboratories. The consumption of water having elevated concentration of As above the safe limit must be discouraged. In south-western districts of Punjab, it recommends the use of canal water for drinking purposes and domestic use by rural and urban populations than ground water sources.     

Evaluating the impact of HIA on urban reconstruction decision-making. Who manages whose risks?

Practitioners and academic researchers increasingly look to evaluation of health impact assessment (HIA) to improve its practice, its efficiency and its legitimacy. Evaluation is also used to account to policy-makers, who express doubts that the benefits of HIA justify its costs. Until recently evaluation of HIA focused on instrument design and procedures but now the focus needs to shift to analysis of the interaction of HIA and decision-making. Multiple case studies have been applied to identify the conditions in which HIA produces the desired benefits. These studies used analytical concepts derived from the literature on evaluation, knowledge utilization, science of sociology and knowledge management.This paper describes a case study in which the strategic motives of the decision-makers affected the impact of an HIA. This HIA comprised of a quantitative environmental model ‘City & Environment’ that was used to assess environmental health impacts of an urban reconstruction plan in a Dutch city. The evaluation of the HIA shows that the decision to follow the recommendations of the HIA was part of a damage control strategy. The more HIA goals deviate from the policy problem and the less HIA is embedded in institutional procedures, then the more HIA impact will be subject to strategic decision-making behaviour. Appropriate cognitive and social strategies are needed to avoid ‘negative learning’ in those the HIA seeks to influence.     

Spatial distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils from typical oil-sewage irrigation area, Northeast China

Air pollution is one of the major environmental problems in India, affecting health of thousands of 'urban' residents residing in mega cities. The need of the day is to evolve an 'effective' and 'efficient' air quality management plan (AQMP) encompassing the essential 'key players' and 'stakeholders.' This paper describes the formulation of an AQMP for mega cities like Delhi in India taking into account the aforementioned key 'inputs.' The AQMP formulation methodology is based on past studies of Longhurst et al., (Atmospheric Environment, 30, 3975-3985, 1996); Longhurst & Elsom, ((1997). Air Pollution-II, Vol. 2 (pp. 525-532)) and Beatti et al., (Atmospheric Environment, 35, 1479-1490, 2001). Further, the vulnerability analysis (VA) has been carried out to evaluate the stresses due to air pollution in the study area. The VA has given the vulnerability index (VI) of 'medium to high' and 'low' at urban roadways/intersections and residential areas, respectively.