Particle size measurements of automotive diesel emissions

The automative diesel engine has long been acknowledged as being “dirtier” than the spark ignition engine and its particulate emissions may be carcinogenic. Possible solutions to the diesel emission problem are combustion modification or aftertreatment devices. Selection of candidate aftertreatment devices requires knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of the particles, including particle morphology, size distribution, mass concentration and emission rates in the exhaust gas stream. The study reported here represents the first of a series of experiments designed to characterize the exhaust emissions and test various aftertreatment devices. This paper deals only with the particulate characterization phase of the program. Results of size distribution, particle concentration and mass emission rate measurements for a 5.71 displacement Oldsmobile diesel engine are given for a variety of engine operating conditions.     

Control of salt laden particulate emissions from hogged fuel boilers

This paper presents the results of an evaluation of excessive salt emissions from 16 hogged fuel boilers in Washington, Oregon, and Alaska. Logs transported or stored in sea water, absorb substantial amounts of salt which is noncombustible, and is emitted as a fine particulate when the hogged fuel is burned, contributing to opacity and particulate emissions. Control measures considered are fuel pretreatment, combustion modification, use of conventional particulate control devices (electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, and wet scrubbers), and several novel particulate control devices.The best available control technology appears to be a mechanical collector-fabric filter combination; some electrostatic scrubber type devices have also shown excellent capability.     

Design guidelines for an optimum scrubber system

The revised New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for the utility industry mandates reduced particulate matter and sulfur dioxide emissions from new utility boilers. A wet scrubber system can be an advantage in controlling both of these emissions. Existing wet scrubber systems may meet the new standards with significant increase in power consumption. A careful design of the entire scrubber system, based on the experience gained at the existing installations, is necessary to ensure cost effectiveness. The experience with existing wet scrubber systems used on coal-fired utility boilers is reviewed and their performance is correlated with power consumptions. Based on a correlation of scrubber pressure drop against outlet concentration, conventional scrubber systems would be able to meet the revised NSPS for particulate matter with a theoretical scrubber pressure drop of 43±5 cm H₂O. Overall system pressure drop, however, could easily run as high as 76 cm H₂O. Novel scrubber systems such as the electrostatically augmented scrubber may provide the necessary collection performance at lower pressure drops. The performance of the various scrubber components such as mist eliminators and reheaters is reviewed. Operating problems are also discussed.     

Electrostatic precipitator emission and opacity performance control through rapper strategy

The opacity and emission performance of two “identical” cold-side precipitators at a power plant utilizing a Western coal source was investigated through an extensive test program. The test program included establishment of outlet emission versus opacity correlations for the two “identical” units, correlation of rapper strategy (frequency and amplitude) with opacity, and correlation of power-off rapping strategy with opacity. Analysis of the test program data demonstrates that the opacity-emission correlations from the two “identical” units can be significantly different. The potential reasons for the differences between the two units are identified and examined in light of the test program data. Strong correlation of opacity with rapping strategy was developed from the test program. Results demonstrate that an automatic power-off rapping technique can significantly enhance precipitator performance on ash from Western coal.     

Diesel particulate extracts in bacterial test systems

The Ames bacterial mutagenicity test system was used to evaluate parameters which may affect the mutagenic activity of diesel particulate extracts. The optimal extraction conditions, extractability of mutagens by simulated biological fluids and the effect of collection method were investigated. The role of solvent was examined by extracting diesel particles with methanol, acetone, cyclohexane, ethyl acetate, n-hexane, dichloromethane, benzene and a benzene-ethanol mixture. Of these, the dichloromethane extract exhibited the highest activity in the Ames test, although methanol yielded the largest extractable mass. Diesel particles were also extracted by dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and four other simulated biological fluids for 48 h at 25, 37, and 45°C to study the effects of temperature. The mutagenic activity of the DMSO extract began to decline at temperatures higher than 37°C after 8 h of incubation. Fetal calf serum was the only simulated biological fluid which eluted mutagenic activity from the particles. No activity was detected in the 0.5% bovine serum albumin, simulated lung surfactant and saline extracts. Diesel particles collected by electrostatic precipitation (ESP) and filtration were studied. The mutagenic activities of both extracts were comparable when expressed as revertants per mg of particle. After the extracts were separated into nine fractions by a solvent partitioning scheme, the majority of the activity was found in the neutral-nonpolar II, neutral polar, strong acid and weak acid fractions. The acid salt fraction from the ESP sample was inactive. These results demonstrate that differences in the extraction conditions can result in differences in the mutagenic activity of diesel particulate extract. Since the mutagens in the extracts are not readily extractable by simulated biological fluids, the question of bioavailability of mutagens in diesel particles must be considered in the final assessment of their potential effects in biological systems and organisms.     

Interactions between diesel emissions and gaseous copollutants in photochemical air pollution: Some health implications

A complete assessment of the health effects of diesel emissions must take into account the possible chemical transformations (and associated biological impacts) of particulate organic matter (POM) due to reactions with the many gaseous copollutants which have now been unambiguously demonstrated to be present in atmospheres burdened by photochemical air pollution. These copollutants include the “trace” species, nitric (HNO₃) and nitrous (HONO) acids, the nitrate radical (NO₃), formaldehyde (H₂CO) and formic acid (HCOOH), as well as the criteria pollutants, ozone (O₃) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). Techniques for establishing the atmospheric concentrations of the trace pollutants (and their spatial and temporal variations) are briefly described, and we present results of investigations into the reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) coated on filters and exposed to ambient concentrations of O₃ and NO₂. Environmental health implications of these results are discussed and include the potential for sampling “artifacts” and their possible effects on the correlation (or lack thereof) between ambient PAH levels and urban lung cancer rates, as well as the problems associated with understanding the appropriate POM “dose” to be employed in animal testing and assessments of impacts on human health.     

Mutagenic and carcinogenic potency of extracts of diesel and related environmental emissions: Study design, sample generation, collection, and preparation

A major diesel emissions research program has been initiated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to assess the human health risk associated with increased use of diesel automobiles. This program is intended to establish the mutagenic and carcinogenic potency of complex organics associated with diesel particles as well as comparative particle-bound organics from other environmental emissions for which human epidemiological data are available. The mobile source samples selected for this study were collected from a heavy-duty diesel engine, a series of light-duty diesel passenger cars, and a gasoline catalyst automobile. The comparative source samples incorporated into the study were cigarette smoke condensate, coke oven emissions, roofing tar emissions, and benzo(a)pyrene. The samples were tested using three mutagenic assays and four carcinogenic assays as prescribed by a test matrix. This report describes the study design, particle generation, and sample collection and preparation. A brief summary of the bioassays is also included.     

Evaluation of the George Neal electrostatic precipitator

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) is currently supporting a major research program characterizing the performance of high efficiency electrostatic precipitators (ESP). One such effort evaluating the George Neal ESP of Iowa Public Service Company is described in this paper.Results show that under well tuned conditions the ESP overall collection efficiency was 99.7% at a specific collecting area of 745 ft²/kacfm (147 m²/m³/s) (520 MW) with associated mass concentrations of 0.025 lb/10⁶ Btu and stack opacity of 4.6%. The boiler outlet size distribution was found to be bimodal with submicron and large particle peaks at 0.2 and 5 microns diameter, respectively. Consequently, an apparent bimodal fractional efficiency curve results with efficiencies of 99.6%, 98%, and 90% measured for 20, 2 and 0.2 micron diameter particles, respectively. Rapping reentrainment losses were found to be insignificant except during episodes of high ash hopper levels resulting from a malfunctioning ash removal system, when large rapping puffs were observed. In addition, outlet emissions increased dramatically to 0.08 lb/10⁶ Btu (34 ng/J) during these periods, suggesting that an emission level more representative of daily operation lies somewhere between 0.025–0.08 lb/10⁶ Btu (10.8–34 ng/J).     

Demonstration of a high field electrostatically enhanced venturi scrubber on a magnesium furnace fume emission

A 566 m³/m (20,000 acfm) permanent installation demonstration system, consisting of the Air Pollution Systems' High Intensity Ionizer and a variable throat venturi scrubber (called the Scrub-E) has been installed on a magnesium recovery furnace. The furnace produces submicron fume particles of MgO, MgCl₂, and ZrCl₄. The system is designed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the High Intensity Ionizer versus high venturi pressure drop on the furnace emissions. The High Intensity Ionizer array operates stably at field strengths of 10–15 kV/cm and at velocities in excess of 18 m/sec (60 fps) while maintaining high charging efficiencies. The report covers the system design, technology, applications, and project developments. An Environmental Protection Agency proposed charged droplet Scrub-E is also discussed covering the design, technology, and proposed demonstration program.     

An evaluation of grid rod failure in a mobile bed scrubber

The body of information presented in this paper is directed to those engineers and maintenance personnel involved in the operation of mobile-bed scrubbers. Materials tests were performed on three specimens of austenitic stainless steel to determine the possible causes of grid rod failure in a mobile-bed scrubber controlling particulate emissions from a pulverized-coal-fired, steam-electric generating station. These three specimens were successively placed in an Instrom universal testing machine and loaded in tension until rupture occurred. The results of these tests, in addition to other supporting data, were used in an attempt to determine the cause of the grid rod failure during scrubber operation. It was determined that the grade of stainless steel used, the scrubber water quality, and certain operational problems could be causes of premature failure.     

Tubular electrostatic precipitators of two-stage design

Although the “two stage” electrostatic precipitator concept was first developed in 1910, until recently most of their use was confined to in-plant air cleaning. In the last decade, plate type designs have been modified to make them suitable for industrial applications involving organic emissions, most notably in asphalt saturating, plastic curing, food processing, printing, textile finishing, and heat treating industries. However, plate type designs are inadequate in applications where very high loading and/or high particulate content are involved.Tubular design with wider spacing and higher voltages incorporates the best features of both the single stage and two stage type precipitators. These units have been used in molybdenum roasting, zirconium calcining, ammonia scrubbing of oxides of sulfur, meat broiling, foundry exhaust, etc.The paper discusses design parameters, field test data, and operating data on these units. Comparisons with single-stage type precipitators are made wherever applicable. Advantages and disadvantages of two stage precipitators are also discussed.     

Emissions trading: An improved technique for air quality management

The emissions trading program was one of the first major regulatory reform efforts at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the Reagan Administration. This program is a set of guidelines for the states to develop federally approved transactions in discharge permits, called an Emission Reduction Credit. The rules governing emissions trading apply within a total ambient constraint or “pollution budget.” This paper provides a discussion of the emissions trading program as an improved technique for air quality management. The paper begins with a discussion of the concept of emissions trading and how the EPA emissions trading program fits into the U.S. Clean Air Act. It is then argued that emissions trading provides a more cost-effective set of implementation incentives in comparison to a “command and control” regulatory system. A number of important attributes of the emissions trading program are discussed, and estimates of cost reductions are provided. The current status of the implementation of the emissions trading program is discussed. The paper concludes with a discussion of several legal, technical, and administrative obstacles to obtaining the efficiencies of emissions trading.     

Environmental effects of new herbicides for vegetation control in forestry

Environmental fate of and toxicity data for ammonium ethyl carbamoylphosphonate [fosamine ammonium], N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine [glyphosate], and 3-cyclohexyl-6-(dimethylamino)-1-methyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4(1H, 3H)-dione [hexazinone] which appear promising for vegetation control in forestry are reviewed. None of the three herbicides is very persistent in soil, with half-lives reported of about 7–10 days for fosamine ammonium, 8–19 weeks for glyphosate, and 1–6 months for hexazinone, depending on soil type and climatic conditions. Degradation in soil is primarily via microbial routes. Whereas hexazinone is a very mobile herbicide (with mobility dependent on soil type), fosamine ammonium and glyphosate are strongly adsorbed and not readily leached in many soil types. Based on bioassay results, the three herbicides exhibit “very low” to “low” toxicity. Fosamine ammonium is not mutagenic and was not teratogenic when fed to pregnant rats at 10,000 ppm. Data on hexazinone indicate no carcinogenic effect in rats, negative in bacterial and mammalian point mutation assays, and not embryotoxic or teratogenic at up to 5000 ppm in diet of rats. The three herbicides have minimum-to-nil effect on soil microorganisms and exhibit little or no potential for bioaccumulation. Limitations of the available data are discussed and suggestions are made for future studies.     

Improving the efficiency of free-jet scrubbers

A free-jet scrubber is an innovative gas cleaner in which the primary liquid/gas contacting takes place in the turbulent mixing zone emanating from a jet nozzle. The first such devices, powered by supersonic steam or air ejectors, were exceptionally effective cleaners but were criticized as being high-energy users. A great reduction in the energy consumption of free-jet scrubbers has been accomplished in the last four years, a feat which may seem in contradiction to the “contacting power rule.” An explanation of what is happening in these devices must take into account the effectiveness with which energy and water are utilized. thereby leading one to a somewhat circular definition of “effective contacting power.” The theoretical implication of this analysis is primarily to remind us that there are many paths between two states and some are more energy efficient than others. The practical value is that such analysis generates information which aids in choosing between several design options, a direct benefit of the various free-jet configurations.     

Evaluation of the Ceilcote ionizing wet scrubber

The Ceilcote ionizing wet scrubber installed on a refractory brick kiln was evaluated with tests involving particulate mass emission, particle size distribution, and opacity. The overall efficiency was 93% with an average outlet opacity of 8% on a 1.68 m (5.5 ft) path length. The average particle cut diameter of the scrubber is 0.5 microns with a theoretical power input of 67 W/am³ (2.5 hp/1000 acfm). The theoretical power requirement for the ionizing wet scrubber was 41 W/am³ (1.54 hp/1000 acfm). A cooling tower supplying chilled water to the prescrubber required an additional 26 W/am² (0.96 hp/1000 acfm) for a total system input of 67 W/am³ (2.5 hp/1000 acfm). It is recommended that the scrubber be considered where practical for the removal of fine particulate matter.     

Particulate removal and opacity using a wet venturi scrubber — the Minnesota Power and Light experience

Minnesota Power and Light is installing a wet venturi particulate scrubber and a spray tower SO₂ absorber as the Air Quality Control System for their 500 MW Unit #4, Clay Boswell Station, Cohasset, Minnesota. The system is being designed and installed by Peabody Process Systems, Inc., Stamford, Connecticut. Prior to start-up the full scale unit, a 1 MW pilot plant was installed and tested to evaluate the performance of the system. Extensive data was collected for two different western coals with regard to venturi particulate removal characteristics and its effect on opacity. Correlations were also developed using pilot plant opacity data to predict full scale opacity results. This paper summarizes the test results obtained and conclusions reached.     

National and regional trends in ambient ozone measurements, 1975–1981

Long-term (1975–1981) and short-term (1980–1981) national and regional trends in ozone (O₃) are examined. The data used in this paper come from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Aerometric Data Bank (NADB). Air quality trends are presented for both the National Air Monitoring Sites (NAMS) and all other sites meeting the historical and data completeness criteria. Nationally, the composite average of the second-highest daily maximum 1-h O₃ values recorded at 209 sites decreased 14% between 1975 and 1981. An even greater improvement was observed in the estimated number of exceedances in the ozone season (July–September), which decreased 42%. Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions decreased 9% during the same time period. The greater improvement observed in ozone levels appears to be a combination of reductions in VOC emissions and the change in the calibration procedure which took place between 1978 and 1979. Between 1980 and 1981, the majority of the 159 monitoring sites with data in both years decreased with a median rate of improvement of 8%. This is consistent with the 7% drop in VOC emissions during this period.     

Pilot field study: Carbon monoxide exposure monitoring in the general population

A pilot field study was conducted with nine members of the general public to measure carbon monoxide exposure using personal monitors. The principal study objectives were to design and evaluate the research protocol and the instrumentation performance for application to the conduct of a large-scale personal monitoring program. Integrated carbon monoxide exposure was monitored and recorded according to type of activity such as “commuting” or “at work” for approximately 45 days by each subject. All subjects except one were able to handle both the equipment and data recording requirements with no significant problems. Actual data recording responsibilities consumed less than 10 min daily. The data consisted of 355 person-days each over 6-h duration, and weekdays only, from which 8-h average personal exposure levels could be computed. The 9 ppm (μL/L) ambient air quality standard was exceeded on 22 person-days. Elevated carbon monoxide concentrations during the commuting activity were frequently associated with the exceedences.     

A quantitative integrated assessment of pollution prevention achieved by Integrated Pollution Prevention Control licensing

This paper presents an innovative, quantitative assessment of pollution avoidance attributable to environmental regulation enforced through integrated licensing, using Ireland's pharmaceutical-manufacturing sector as a case study. Emissions data reported by pharmaceutical installations were aggregated into a pollution trend using an Environmental Emissions Index (EEI) based on Lifecycle Assessment methodologies. Complete sectoral emissions data from 2001 to 2007 were extrapolated back to 1995, based on available data. Production volume data were used to derive a sectoral production index, and determine ‘no-improvement’ emission trends, whilst questionnaire responses from 20 industry representatives were used to quantify the contribution of integrated licensing to emission avoidance relative to these trends. Between 2001 and 2007, there was a 40% absolute reduction in direct pollution from 27 core installations, and 45% pollution avoidance relative to hypothetical ‘no-improvement’ pollution. It was estimated that environmental regulation avoided 20% of ‘no-improvement’ pollution, in addition to 25% avoidance under business-as-usual. For specific emissions, avoidance ranged from 14% and 30 kt a^− 1 for CO₂ to 88% and 598 t a^− 1 for SO_x. Between 1995 and 2007, there was a 59% absolute reduction in direct pollution, and 76% pollution avoidance. Pollution avoidance was dominated by reductions in emissions of VOCs, SO_x and NO_x to air, and emissions of heavy metals to water. Pollution avoidance of 35% was attributed to integrated licensing, ranging from between 8% and 2.9 t a^− 1 for phosphorus emissions to water to 49% and 3143 t a^− 1 for SO_x emissions to air. Environmental regulation enforced through integrated licensing has been the major driver of substantial pollution avoidance achieved by Ireland's pharmaceutical sector — through emission limit values associated with Best Available Techniques, emissions monitoring and reporting requirements, and performance targets specified in environmental management plans. This compliant sector offers a positive, but not necessarily typical, case study of IPPC effectiveness.     

Mutagenic and carcinogenic potency of extracts from diesel related environmental emissions: Simultaneous morphological transformation and mutagenesis in BALB/c 3t3 cells

Particulate extracts from six different environmental emission sources were assayed for genotoxic activity in mouse BALB/c 3T3 clone A31-1 cells. All compounds were tested simultaneously for both transforming and mutagenic (induction of ouabain-resistance) potential with and without exogenous metabolic activation in the form of a 9000 × g postmitochondrial hepatic supernatant fraction from Aroclor-1254 induced Fischer 344 rats. Dichloromethane particulate extracts from the exhaust of two light duty diesel engines (Oldsmobile and Nissan), one heavy duty diesel engine (Caterpillar) and one late model gasoline engine (Mustang II) were assayed in an identical manner to particulate extracts from the emissions of a roofing tar pot and a coke oven. No clear dose-dependent responses were observed, but several of the samples showed significant transforming and mutagenic activity. A qualitative ranking system showed the activity of these particulate extracts for either mutagenesis or transformation was: coke oven = Mustang II gasoline engine > Nissan diesel engine > roofing tar. Particulate extracts from the Oldsmobile diesel engine and the Caterpillar diesel engine showed essentially no activity.