An experimental study on the burning rate of a continuously released n-heptane spill fire on an open water surface

Spill fires are common during oil product storage and transportation after a loss of containment. Since the burning fuel is moving and the fuel depth is quite shallow, the burning rate in a spill fire is different from that of a pool fire with a static burning zone. Unlike pool fires, which have been studied for decades and have well-established correlations for burning rate, research on spill fires is inadequate. In this paper, continuously released n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted on open water surfaces with varying fuel discharge rates. The pool diameters were measured, and the spill fire burning rates were estimated based on a dynamic balance between fuel supply and combustion. The burning rates in n-heptane pool fires from the literature were reviewed and compared with the estimated burning rates in spill fires of the same dimension. The spill fire burning rate was found to be close to that in a pool fire during the initial burning phase but lower than that in a bulk burning pool fire and that in a “fuel-level-controlled” pool fire. The distinction between the burning rates of spill fires and pool fires is explained by the heat balance analysis of the fuel layer. A model for the spill fire burning rate was proposed accordingly. The results calculated with the presented model are closer to the measured data than those calculated with pool fire models.     

油池火作用下钢管混凝土柱温度分布研究

在开敞空间条件下利用油池火模拟不同的火灾场景,对火源燃烧阶段和燃烧结束后钢管混凝土柱的温度变化进行研究。测量了燃料质量变化和钢管混凝土柱的温度分布等参数,分析不同火灾场景下钢管混凝土柱轴向、横截面的温度变化,并以实验工况HS3为例进行深入分析,同时分析了火源的燃烧时间、热释放速率对钢管混凝土柱温度场分布的影响。研究结果表明,钢管混凝土柱纵向温度分布与横向温度分布一样都存在明显的温度梯度,其表面钢管温度变化受火场热释放速率影响较大,而内部混凝土的温度变化则主要受火场持续时间的影响。     

Evaluation of CFD simulations of transient pool fire burning rates

Fire is the most commonly occurring major accident hazard in the chemical and process industries, with industry accident statistics highlighting the liquid pool fire as the most frequent fire event. Modelling of such phenomena feeds heavily into industry risk assessment and consequence analyses. Traditional simple empirical equations cannot account for the full range of factors influencing pool fire behaviour or increasingly complex plant design. The use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling enables a greater understanding of pool fire behaviour to be gained numerically and provides the capability to deal with complex scenarios.This paper presents an evaluation of the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) for predictive modelling of liquid pool fire burning rates. Specifically, the work examines the ability of the model to predict temporal variations in the burning rate of open atmosphere pool fires. Fires ranging from 0.4 to 4 m in diameter, involving ethanol and a range of liquid hydrocarbons as fuels, are considered and comparisons of predicted fuel mass loss rates are compared to experimental measurements.The results show that the liquid pyrolysis sub-model in FDS gives consistent model performance for fully predictive modelling of liquid pool fire burning rates, particularly during quasi-steady burning. However, the model falls short of predicting the subtleties associated with each phase of the transient burning process, failing to reliably predict fuel mass loss rates during fire growth and extinction. The results suggest a range of model modifications which could lead to improved prediction of the transient fire growth and extinction phases of burning for liquid pool fires, specifically, investigation of: ignition modelling techniques for high boiling temperature liquid fuels; a combustion regime combining both infinite and finite-rate chemistry; a solution method which accounts for two- or three-dimensional heat conduction effects in the liquid-phase; alternative surrogate fuel compositions for multi-component hydrocarbon fuels; and modification of the solution procedure used at the liquid-gas interface during fire extinction.     

庚烷池火多火源燃烧特性的实验研究

多火源燃烧是森林火灾和城市群发性火灾中重要而又特殊的火灾现象,相关研究很少。通过恒定控制液面高度的实验系统,对直径0.1m、0.2m和0.4m的庚烷池火在单个火源、两火源燃烧和三火源线性排列时的火焰高度、火焰体积和燃烧速率等特性进行了实验研究。研究发现,三火源燃烧时中间火源的火焰高度、火焰体积和燃烧速率明显高于两火源燃烧和单火源燃烧,三火源燃烧时边上火源与两火源的燃烧状况难以区分。这些燃烧特性随着火源间距的减小,呈现增大趋势。热量反馈增强和空气卷吸受限这两种火源相互作用机制相互耦合,且随着火源间距的减小而增强,在S/D（S为火源间距,D为油池直径）为2～4时,两种机制强烈竞争,在其他参数范围内热量反馈增强效应占主导作用。研究还发现火焰体积与热释放速率有较好的线性相关关系,单位火焰体积的热释放速率约为1614kW/m3。     

不同边沿高度油池火燃烧行为的实验和数值模拟研究

采用实验和FDS数值模拟相结合的方法,探讨了边沿高度对油池火燃烧特性的影响。在实验部分,研究了燃烧速率和表观火焰高度随边沿高度的变化趋势,并分别分析了各个阶段的热反馈机制。在实验获得不同尺度、边沿高度正庚烷油池火燃烧速率的前提下,建立相应尺度的不同边沿高度油池火的Fire Dynamics Simulator(FDS)计算模型以针对火焰高度进行了数值模拟研究,分析了实际火焰高度、火焰下探高度随边沿高度的变化趋势,并提出了相关的无量纲拟合式。     

Configuration predictions of large liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) pool fires using CFD method

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has potential pool fire risks due to its flammability. The configuration of pool fires plays a significant role when applying the solid flame model or point source model to assess the risks from heat radiation. However, no existing correlations can precisely predict the configuration of large LPG (100% propane) pool fires. To enhance the fundamental understanding on how pool diameter and wind velocity can influence the configuration of large LPG pool fires, an experimentally validated Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model is employed to simulate fires using different burning rate models. Fire temperature profiles, flame heights, and flame tilts predicted by the CFD model were compared with empirical models and experimental data. Accordingly, new correlations for flame height and flame tilt as functions of pool diameter D and wind velocity u_w have been developed. The comparisons demonstrate that the new correlations have the best overall accuracy in the prediction of flame height and tilt for large LPG pool fires under different conditions (10 m ≤ D ≤ 20 m, 0 ≤ u_w ≤ 3 m·s⁻¹).     

The study of burning behaviors and quantitative risk assessment for 0# diesel oil pool fires

The liquid fuel safety issues on fuel storage, transportation and processing have gained most attention because of the high fire risk. In this paper, some 0# diesel pool fire experiments with different diameters (0.2–1 m) were conducted with initial fuel thicknesses of 2 cm and 4 cm, respectively, to obtain liquid fuel combustion characteristics. Some key parameters including mass burning rate, flame height and the flame radiative heat flux, associated with fire risk, were investigated and determined. Subsequently, a detail quantitative risk assessment framework for 0# diesel pool fire is proposed based on the 0# diesel burning characteristics. In the framework, the probability of personal dead and the facility failure are calculated by the vulnerability models, respectively. In the end, 10 special tank fire scenarios were selected to show the whole risk calculation process. The tank diameter and the distance to pool fires were paid more attention in the cases. The safety distances in the cases are provided for the persons and nearby facilities, respectively. The paper enriches the basic experimental data and the provided framework is useful to the management of 0# diesel tank areas.     

扬沸过程火焰辐射的估算

本文基于轴对称灰体火焰的物理假定，运用二维数值积分方法，对含水层油品燃烧过程反馈热辐射以及火焰对环境的热辐射水平进行了估算；同时，本文研究了火焰反馈热辐射对油品燃烧速率的影响，所得结果物理趋势合理。     

室内火灾中外部燃烧现象的数值模拟

外部燃烧是室内火灾中火焰随烟气流出窗户并在窗户外燃烧的现象。外部燃烧会造成火势从初始着火的房间向其他房间或楼层蔓延,具有很大的危害性。本文应用美国国家标准技术局（NIST）开发的FDS程序,对外部燃烧现象进行了研究。首先对Bullen和Thomas的实验进行数值模拟,用以验证FDS对外部燃烧现象的模拟效果。在相近的燃料过量因子的条件下,计算得到的外部燃烧羽流的温度分布结果、外部燃烧火焰的高度和火焰距离窗户所在壁面的水平距离与Bullen和Thomas的实验结果符合得较好。之后,研究了不同窗户大小和不同燃料消耗率对外部燃烧的影响。最后,发现当燃料消耗率足够大致使室内燃料过量因子接近1时,室内火焰将会熄灭,燃料流出窗户形成的外部燃烧火焰会被拉长,火焰肾贴窗户外的壁面向上燃烧。     

CFD simulation of pool fires situated at differing elevation

When two or more pool fires happen to burn so close to each other that they interact, they are termed ‘multiple pool fires’ (MPF). Past accident analysis reveals that MPFs occur quite frequently in chemical process industries. Controlled experiments done so far to study MPFs have indicated that MPFs lead to increase in the fuel burning rate, flame height and heat release rate (HRR) but the nature and the extent of the impacts of different factors on these manifestations is as yet poorly understood. In this context computational fluid dynamics (CFD) appears to be a tool which can enable more detailed and realistic simulation of MPFs than other possible approaches, especially due to its ability to closely approximate the underlying physical phenomena. In tank farms there are situations where different storage tanks are placed at different elevations yet close to each other. If such tanks happen to catch fire, the resulting fires may influence each other in a manner that may be a function of the difference in the tanks’ elevation. However no CFD study has been carried out which addresses this type of situation. Hence an attempt has been made to employ CFD to study MPFs involving two pools with fuel surfaces are at different elevations. Results reveal that good correlation is possible between the experimental findings and the CFD simulations.     

Improved models of failure time for atmospheric tanks under the coupling effect of multiple pool fires

Fire accidents of chemical installations may cause domino effects in atmospheric tank farms, where a large amount of hazardous substances are stored or processed. Pool fire is a major form of fire accidents, and the thermal radiation from pool fire is the primary hazard of domino accidents. The coupling of multiple pool fires is a realistic and important accident phenomenon that enhances the propagation of domino accidents. However, previous research has mostly focused on the escalation of domino accidents induced by a single pool fire. To overcome the drawback, in this study, the failure of a storage tank under the coupling effect of multiple pool fires was studied in view of spatial and temporal synergistic process. The historical accident statistics indicated that the accident scenario of two-pool fires accounted for 30.6% in pool fires. The domino accident scenario involving three tanks is analyzed, and the typical layout of tanks is isosceles right triangle based on Chinese standard “GB50341-2014”. The thermal response and damage of a target tank heated by pool fires were numerically investigated. The volume of 500 m³, 3000 m³, 5000 m³ and 10000 m³ were selected. Flame temperature was obtained by FDS, and then was input onto the finite element model. The temperature field and stress field of target tanks were simulated by ABAQUS. The results showed that the temperature rise rate of the target tanks under multiple pool fires was higher than that under a single pool fire. The failure time of the tank under the coupling effect of multiple fires was lower than that under the superposition of multiple fires without the first stage. The stress and yield strength were compared to judge the failure of the target tank. The model of failure time for the tank under the coupling effect of pool fires was established. Through the verification, the deviation of this model is 4.02%, which is better than the deviation of 15.76% with Cozzani's model.     

有机酸对H发泡剂分解历程的影响及作用机制分析*

为研究有机酸对H发泡剂热分解特性的影响,采用量热仪测试不同质量分数苯甲酸、水杨酸、邻苯二甲酸与H发泡剂混合物的热分解特性参数。结果表明:H发泡剂分解时,随着升温速率增加,外推起始分解温度Te、峰值温度Tp与最大放热速率随之升高。3种有机酸的加入均可以促进H发泡剂的分解,随着有机酸质量分数的增加,其外推起始分解温度和峰值温度呈现同步下降趋势。有机酸熔融生成的H+对H发泡剂分解过程具有显著影响。加入水杨酸能显著降低H发泡剂分解的热释放速率,降低H发泡剂分解过程中的热风险,当水杨酸质量分数达到24%时,较之混有苯甲酸与邻苯二甲酸的H发泡剂外推起始分解温度降低20 ℃。     

黄磷燃烧特性实验研究与理论分析

基于黄磷燃烧特性实验,对黄磷燃烧的动力学现象进行了实验研究和理论分析。通过观察不同燃烧表面积的黄磷燃烧动力学现象,获得了黄磷的燃烧特性参数,并利用池火模型对黄磷燃烧实验进行了理论分析。研究结果表明：固定表面积的黄磷燃烧时,黄磷的质量损失速率可近似视为某一恒定值,黄磷的质量损失速率与燃烧表面积有关。黄磷燃烧实验火焰最高温度约为1000℃,火焰高度与燃烧表面积有关。池火模型可以对黄磷的燃烧特性参数进行预测和分析,池火模型所预测的火焰高度与实验数据基本相吻合,相对误差小于7％。     

有风条件下航空煤油池火燃烧特性的实验研究

在全尺寸热释放速率实验台的基础上,搭建有风条件池火实验平台,开展了不同风速条件下的航空煤油池火燃烧实验,实验所用正方形油盘的边长分别为0.2m、0.3m和0.4m,风速范围为0 m.s-1至4.99 m.s-1。实验结果表明,风速为0 m.s-1时航空煤油池火的燃烧速率随油盘尺寸增大而单调递增,实验值与理论值的差距随风速增大而减小。实验所得.m″windy/.ms″till与v/D呈线性关系,与前人结论一致,但实验所得参数与前人值不同。同尺寸油盘池火的热释放速率峰值来临时间随风速增大有减小的趋势;不同尺寸油池火的燃烧速率随风速增加而单调递增。对不同尺寸油池火的热释放速率峰值随风速的变化规律作了讨论。     

Numerical simulation of small-scale pool fires of LNG

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) has been largely indicated as a promising alternative solution for the transportation and storage of natural gas. In the case of accidental release on the ground, a pool fire scenario may occur. Despite the relevance of this accident, due to its likelihood and potential to trigger domino effects, accurate analyses addressing the characterization of pool fires of LNG are still missing.In this work, the fire dynamic simulator (FDS) has been adopted for the evaluation of the effects of the released amount of fuel and its composition (methane, ethane, and propane), on the thermal and chemical properties of small-scale LNG pool fire. More specifically, the heat release rate, the burning rate, the flame height, and thermal radiation, at different initial conditions, have been evaluated for pool having diameter smaller than 10 m. Safety distances have been calculated for all the investigated conditions, as well.Results have also been compared with data and correlations retrieved from the current literature. The equation of Thomas seems to work properly for the definition of the height over diameter ratio of the LNG pool fire for all the mixture and the investigated diameters.The addition of ethane and propane significantly affects the obtained results, especially in terms of radiative thermal radiation peaks, thus indicating the inadequacy of the commonly adopted assumption of pure methane as single, surrogate species for the LNG mixture.     

LNG池火热辐射模型及安全距离影响因素研究

重点对LNG池火热辐射模型,模型应用方式,以及热辐射安全距离的影响因素做了详细研究,给出池火热辐射模型采用及安全距离计算的方法。对常用的热辐射计算模型(点源模型、LNGFire3和PoFM ISE模型)加以介绍,并对3种模型做了对比研究。PoFM ISE模型充分考虑大池火直径时不完全燃烧的因素以及风速对火焰高度的影响,建议当风速大于1.5 m/s,池火直径大于20 m时采用。同时,进一步研究影响LNG池火热辐射安全距离的各种因素,包括池火直径、风速、环境温度和湿度,从而得出不同条件下池火热辐射安全距离的要求。     

烃类池火灾热辐射量化分析模型探讨

为澄清有关烃类池火灾热辐射量化分析模型选择中存在的问题,针对"池火计算方法"模型进行量纲分析和物理意义方面的讨论,提出该模型在概念使用、量纲关系、热释放速率的计算以及池火焰模化等方面存在的问题。系统阐述点源模型、Shokri-Beyler模型、Mudan模型等常用烃类池火灾热辐射通量分析模型的适用条件和应用范围。点源模型适用于被辐射目标物从池火焰接受的热辐射通量小于5 kW.m-2情况下池火灾热辐射的量化分析;Shokri-Beyler模型主要应用于估算被辐射目标物从池火焰接受的热辐射通量大于5 kW.m-2的情况;Mudan模型可用于估算无风或有风条件下被辐射目标物从池火焰接受的热辐射通量。     

压缩空气泡沫扑救大型油类火灾全尺寸实验研究*

为验证压缩空气泡沫扑救大型火灾的有效性,分别开展225 m2甲醇和450 m2重油油池火灭火实验,采用压缩空气泡沫系统搭配消防机器人远距离喷射压缩空气泡沫的灭火方法,分析该方法的灭火效能。研究结果表明:压缩空气泡沫系统可以实现远距离灭火,压缩空气泡沫的施加可以有效降低油池内燃料温度、火场温度以及油池附近热辐射强度。在压缩空气泡沫系统混合液流量为3 900 L/min时,距离油池边缘29 m条件下扑救450 m2全尺寸重油火灾的灭火时间为130 s,灭火阶段水和3%泡沫液的消耗量分别为8 233 L和273 L;在压缩空气泡沫系统混合液流量为3 600 L/min时,距离油池边缘不小于35 m条件下扑救225 m2全尺寸甲醇火灾的灭火时间为231 s,灭火阶段水和6%泡沫液的消耗量分别为12 962 L和808 L。研究结果对提升扑救大型油池火灾的作战能力具有重要意义。     

An experimental and modeling study of continuous liquid fuel spill fires on water

The spread of burning fuel spilled from oil product containers during offshore storage and transportation may cause large damage and trigger further accidents. Some analytical models already exist to predict the spread and burning behavior of liquid fuel spill fires, however, few experimental studies have been conducted to verify the model results. In this paper, continuous n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted in a rectangular trench covered with water. The burning area, fuel spread rate, and thermal flux with different discharge flow rates and ignition delay times were investigated by both experimental and modeling means. The spill fire burning area, with 5 typical phases during burning, has a quasi-steady value which is directly proportional to the discharge rate but irrelevant to the ignition delay times. The steady burning rate, as the ratio of discharge rate over burning area, was estimated. A spread model was modified to simulate the spread of continuous liquid fuel spill fires in a one-dimensional channel, based on the balance between gravity and viscous forces. A cuboid solid flame model was used to compute the thermal flux from spill fires. The burning fuel spread and the heat flux calculated by the models agree with the experimental results.     

超细水雾抑制煤燃烧的模拟实验研究

为了研究超细水雾对煤燃烧的抑制效果,基于小尺寸空间抑制燃烧实验平台,研究了超细水雾对煤燃烧的抑制效果,计算在超细水雾作用下实验空间内部氧气、二氧化碳、一氧化碳体积分数的变化情况以及燃烧空间内不同部位的温度变化情况,并且与煤自由燃烧的情况做对比。研究表明超细水雾对煤燃烧的火灾发展过程有很好的抑制作用。研究结论对超细水雾应用于熄灭矿井煤炭火灾具有一定的指导意义