Predicting biodegradable volatile solids degradation profiles in the composting process

This paper presents a new method for the prediction of the pattern of biodegradable volatile solids (BVS) degradation in the composting process. The procedure is based on a re-arrangement of the heat balance around a composting system to numerically solve for the rate of BVS carbon (BVS-C) disappearance. Input data for the model was obtained from composting experiments conducted in a laboratory-scale, constant temperature difference (CTD) reactor simulating a section of an aerated static pile, and using a simulated feedstock comprising ostrich feed, shredded paper, finished compost and woodchips. These experiments also provided validation data in the form of exit gas CO(2) carbon (CO(2)-C) profiles. The model successfully predicted the generic shape of experimental substrate degradation profiles obtained from CO(2) measurements, but under the conditions and assumptions of the experiment, the profiles were quantitatively different, giving an over-estimate of BVS-C. Both measured CO(2)-C and predicted BVS-C profiles were moderately to well fitted by a single exponential function, with replicated rate coefficient values of 0.08 and 0.09 d(-1), and 0.06 and 0.07 d(-1), respectively. In order to explore the underlying shape of the profiles, measured and predicted data at varying temperature were corrected to a constant temperature of 40 degrees C, using the temperature correction function of Rosso et al. [Rosso, L., Lobry, J.R., and Flandrois, J.P., 1993. An unexpected correlation between cardinal temperatures of microbial growth highlighted by a new model. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 162, 447-463], with cardinal temperatures of 5, 59 and 85 degrees C. Multi-phase profiles were generated for both the measured CO(2)-C and the predicted BVS-C data in this case. However, when alternative cardinal temperatures of 5, 55 and 80 degrees C, or 5, 50 and 80 degrees C, were used, the predicted profiles assumed an exponential shape, and excellent fits were obtained using a double exponential function. These findings support the argument that a substrate degradation curve generated under laboratory conditions at 40 degrees C, would, given correct cardinal temperatures, generate a correct substrate degradation profile under varying temperature conditions and that this in turn would enable an accurate and precise prediction of the temperature profile, using a heat and mass balance approach. In order to realise this prospect, it is proposed that further work to obtain experimental data under completely mixed conditions, more accurately estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient and obtain correct values for the cardinal temperatures used in the temperature correction function, is required.     

Composting of vegetable waste.

The effects of the aeration, seeding, and agitation on the composting of vegetable waste were studied in a laboratory-scale reactor. Experimental results showed that the final product at the end of a 4-day composting period met multiple maturity indices suggested by many researchers. The evolution of carbon dioxide during the composting process could be modelled with a modified Gompertz equation that described the bacteria growth successfully. Multivariate regression analysis was used to study the effects of operating parameters on the carbon conversion. The response surface contour plots were constructed using the regression equation for the examination of the dependence of carbon conversion on operating parameters. The maximum carbon conversion of 14.54% was obtained when the percentage of seeding was set at 14.5%, the air suction rate was set at 2.6 L kg(-1) dry-solid min(-1), and the agitator operated half of the time, alternating on and off for every 5 min. Future work will focus on the application of the data and the experience gained in this work to composters of pilot and semi-commercial scales.     

Mathematical model for carbon dioxide evolution from the thermophilic composting of synthetic food wastes made of dog food

The impacts of the aeration and the agitation on the composting process of synthetic food wastes made of dog food were studied in a laboratory-scale reactor. Two major peaks of CO(2) evolution rate were observed. Each peak represented an independent stage of composting associated with the activities of thermophilic bacteria. CO(2) evolutions known to correlate well with microbial activities and reactor temperatures were fitted successfully to a modified Gompertz equation, which incorporated three biokinetic parameters, namely, CO(2) evolution potential, specific CO(2) evolution rate, and lag phase time. No parameters that describe the impact of operating variables are involved. The model is only valid for the specified experimental conditions and may look different with others. The effects of operating parameters such as aeration and agitation were studied statistically with multivariate regression technique. Contour plots were constructed using regression equations for the examination of the dependence of CO(2) evolution potentials on aeration and agitation. In the first stage, a maximum CO(2) evolution potential was found when the aeration rate and the agitation parameter were set at 1.75 l/kg solids-min and 0.35, respectively. In the second stage, a maximum existed when the aeration rate and the agitation parameter were set at 1.8 l/kg solids-min and 0.5, respectively. The methods presented here can also be applied for the optimization of large-scale composting facilities that are operated differently and take longer time.     

Home composting as an alternative treatment option for organic household waste in Denmark: An environmental assessment using life cycle assessment-modelling

An environmental assessment of the management of organic household waste (OHW) was performed from a life cycle perspective by means of the waste-life cycle assessment (LCA) model EASEWASTE. The focus was on home composting of OHW in Denmark and six different home composting units (with different input and different mixing frequencies) were modelled. In addition, incineration and landfilling was modelled as alternatives to home composting. The most important processes contributing to the environmental impact of home composting were identified as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (load) and the avoided emissions in relation to the substitution of fertiliser and peat when compost was used in hobby gardening (saving). The replacement of fertiliser and peat was also identified as one of the most sensible parameters, which could potentially have a significant environmental benefit. Many of the impact categories (especially human toxicity via water (HTw) and soil (HTs)) were affected by the heavy metal contents of the incoming OHW. The concentrations of heavy metals in the compost were below the threshold values for compost used on land and were thus not considered to constitute a problem. The GHG emissions were, on the other hand, dependent on the management of the composting units. The frequently mixed composting units had the highest GHG emissions. The environmental profiles of the home composting scenarios were in the order of −2 to 16 milli person equivalents (mPE) Mg⁻¹ wet waste (ww) for the non-toxic categories and −0.9 to 28 mPE Mg⁻¹ ww for the toxic categories. Home composting performed better than or as good as incineration and landfilling in several of the potential impact categories. One exception was the global warming (GW) category, in which incineration performed better due to the substitution of heat and electricity based on fossil fuels.     

Effect of the composting substrate on biodegradation of solid materials under controlled composting conditions

Biodegradability under composting conditions is assessed by test methods, such as ASTM D 5338-92, based on the measurement of CO₂ released by test materials when mixed with mature compost and maintained in a controlled composting environment. However, in real composting, biodegradation occurs in fresh waste. To clarify this point, the biodegradation of paper and of a starch-based biodegradable thermoplastic material, Mater-Bi ZI01U, was followed by measuring the weight loss of samples introduced either into a mature compost or into a synthetic waste. The weight loss in mature compost was higher at the beginning but tended to decrease; in synthetic waste a first lag phase was followed by an exponential phase. Complete degradation of paper was noticed simultaneously in the two substrates (after 25 days). The bulkier Mater-Bi samples were fully degraded after 20 days in fresh waste, but after 45 days in mature compost. Therefore, the test methods using mature compost as a substrate can possibly underestimate the biodegradation rate occurring in fresh waste, i.e., in real composting plants, and have to be considered as conservative test methods. The test procedure described in this paper seems very suitable as a screening method to verify the compostability of plastic materials in a composting environment.     

Mathematical modelling of the composting process: a review

In this paper mathematical models of the composting process are examined and their performance evaluated. Mathematical models of the composting process have been derived from both energy and mass balance considerations, with solutions typically derived in time, and in some cases, spatially. Both lumped and distributed parameter models have been reported, with lumped parameter models presently predominating in the literature. Biological energy production functions within the models included first-order, Monod-type or empirical expressions, and these have predicted volatile solids degradation, oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide production, with heat generation derived using heat quotient factors. Rate coefficient correction functions for temperature, moisture, oxygen and/or free air space have been incorporated in a number of the first-order and Monod-type expressions. The most successful models in predicting temperature profiles were those which incorporated either empirical kinetic expressions for volatile solids degradation or CO2 production, or which utilised a first-order model for volatile solids degradation, with empirical corrections for temperature and moisture variations. Models incorporating Monod-type kinetic expressions were less successful. No models were able to predict maximum, average and peak temperatures to within criteria of 5, 2 and 2 degrees C, respectively, or to predict the times to reach peak temperatures to within 8 h. Limitations included the modelling of forced aeration systems only and the generation of temperature validation data for relatively short time periods in relation to those used in full-scale composting practice. Moisture and solids profiles were well predicted by two models, but oxygen and carbon dioxide profiles were generally poorly modelled. Further research to obtain more extensive substrate degradation data, develop improved first-order biological heat production models, investigate mechanistically-based moisture correction factors, explore the role of moisture tension, investigate model performance over thermophilic composting time periods, provide more information on model sensitivity and incorporate natural ventilation aeration expressions into composting process models, is suggested.     

Aerobic composting of waste activated sludge: kinetic analysis for microbiological reaction and oxygen consumption

In order to examine the optimal design and operating parameters, kinetics for microbiological reaction and oxygen consumption in composting of waste activated sludge were quantitatively examined. A series of experiments was conducted to discuss the optimal operating parameters for aerobic composting of waste activated sludge obtained from Kawagoe City Wastewater Treatment Plant (Saitama, Japan) using 4 and 20 L laboratory scale bioreactors. Aeration rate, compositions of compost mixture and height of compost pile were investigated as main design and operating parameters. The optimal aerobic composting of waste activated sludge was found at the aeration rate of 2.0 L/min/kg (initial composting mixture dry weight). A compost pile up to 0.5 m could be operated effectively. A simple model for composting of waste activated sludge in a composting reactor was developed by assuming that a solid phase of compost mixture is well mixed and the kinetics for microbiological reaction is represented by a Monod-type equation. The model predictions could fit the experimental data for decomposition of waste activated sludge with an average deviation of 2.14%. Oxygen consumption during composting was also examined using a simplified model in which the oxygen consumption was represented by a Monod-type equation and the axial distribution of oxygen concentration in the composting pile was described by a plug-flow model. The predictions could satisfactorily simulate the experiment results for the average maximum oxygen consumption rate during aerobic composting with an average deviation of 7.4%.     

Effect of the mixing ratio on the composting of OFMSW digestate: assessment of compost quality

This study presents the results obtained in compostability tests of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) digestate. The final aim was to obtain mature compost without phytotoxic effects. For the evaluation of the composting process, a novel parameter describing the performance of the composting process, the relative heat generation standardized with the initial volatile solid content (RHGVS₀), was defined and evaluated at laboratory-scale. From these laboratory-scale test, the optimum operational conditions were obtained, a mixing ratio (v/v) of 1:1:0 (bulking agent:digestate:co-substrate) and with 15% of mature compost as inoculum. Subsequently, these optimum operational conditions were applied in the active phase of the composting pilot-scale reactor. The active composting stage took 7 days, subsequently a curing phase of 60 days was carried out at ambient conditions. After 30 days of curing, the mature compost showed a specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) of 0.14 mg O₂/g VS·h, a germination index (GI) of 99.63% and a low volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentration (41.3 AcH mg/kg_dm), being indicative of the good compost stability and maturity of the compost. The very good quality of the final compost obtained indicated that the RHGVS₀ accurately describes the performance of the composting process.

     

Simple Modeling Tool for Reconstructing Source History Using High Resolution Contaminant Profiles From Low‐k Zones

An innovative but simple analytical modeling tool for reconstructing contaminant concentration versus time trends (i.e., “source history”) for a site using high‐resolution contaminant profiles from low permeability (low‐k) zones was developed and tested. Migration of contaminants into low‐k zones via diffusion (and possibly slow advection) produce concentration versus depth profiles that can be used to understand temporal concentration trends at the interface with overlying transmissive zones, including evidence of attenuation over time due to source decay. A simple transport‐based spreadsheet tool for generating source history estimates fit to the profiles was developed and applied to published soil concentration versus depth data from five distinct areas of four different sites contaminated with chlorinated ethenes. Using the root mean square error as an optimization metric, strong fits between measured and model‐predicted soil data were obtained in the majority of cases using site‐specific values for input parameters. In general, significant improvements could not be obtained by varying these parameters. As a result, the source history estimates generated by the tool were similar to those that had already been generated using more intensive analytical or numerical inverse modeling approaches. This included confirmation of constant source histories at locations where dense nonaqueous‐phase liquid was present (or suspected to be present), and declining source histories for locations where source isolation and/or attenuation had occurred. The advantage of the modeling tool described here is that it provides a simpler yet more dynamic method for understanding source behavior over time than existing approaches. ©2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Composting kinetics in full-scale mechanical–biological treatment plants

This study focuses on the investigation of the kinetics of municipal solid waste composting in three full-scale mechanical–biological treatment (MBT) plants. The aims were to test a kinetic model based on volatile solids (VS) content change for describing the composting process in MBT plants, and to identify the model parameters that affected the estimation of the reaction rate constant most. To achieve this, VS content and several environmental conditions, namely temperature, moisture content, oxygen concentration and total bulk density were monitored throughout the composting process. Experimental data was fitted with a first-order kinetic model, and a rate constant (k) characteristic of composting under optimum environmental conditions was obtained. The kinetic model satisfactorily described the experimental data for the three MBT plants. k values ranged from 0.043 ± 0.002 d^?1 to 0.082 ± 0.011 d^?1. Sensitivity analysis showed that the model parameters that most affected the estimation of k were the initial biodegradable volatile solids content, the maximum temperature for biodegradation and the optimum moisture content. In conclusion, we show for the first time that full-scale MBT plants can be successfully modelled with a composting kinetic model.     

First-order kinetic gas generation model parameters for wet landfills

Landfill gas collection data from wet landfill cells were analyzed and first-order gas generation model parameters were estimated for the US EPA landfill gas emissions model (LandGEM). Parameters were determined through statistical comparison of predicted and actual gas collection. The US EPA LandGEM model appeared to fit the data well, provided it is preceded by a lag phase, which on average was 1.5 years. The first-order reaction rate constant, k, and the methane generation potential, L(o), were estimated for a set of landfills with short-term waste placement and long-term gas collection data. Mean and 95% confidence parameter estimates for these data sets were found using mixed-effects model regression followed by bootstrap analysis. The mean values for the specific methane volume produced during the lag phase (V(sto)), L(o), and k were 33 m(3)/Megagrams (Mg), 76 m(3)/Mg, and 0.28 year(-1), respectively. Parameters were also estimated for three full scale wet landfills where waste was placed over many years. The k and L(o) estimated for these landfills were 0.21 year(-1), 115 m(3)/Mg, 0.11 year(-1), 95 m(3)/Mg, and 0.12 year(-1) and 87 m(3)/Mg, respectively. A group of data points from wet landfills cells with short-term data were also analyzed. A conservative set of parameter estimates was suggested based on the upper 95% confidence interval parameters as a k of 0.3 year(-1) and a L(o) of 100 m(3)/Mg if design is optimized and the lag is minimized.     

Influence of dairy manure addition on the biological and thermal kinetics of composting of greenhouse tomato plant residues

A laboratory-scale bioreactor was used to investigate the influence of dairy manure addition (as an inoculum and a carbon source) on the biological and thermal kinetics of the composting process of tomato plant residues-wood shavings mixture. Urea was added (as a nitrogen source) to correct the initial C:N ratio to 30:1 and the initial moisture content was also adjusted to 60%. The result of this study indicated that manure addition to the tomato residues-wood shavings mixture is a good source of macro and micronutrients required for supporting the composting microorganisms. Manure addition increased the rate of temperature increase and the duration of maximum temperature and reduced the lag and the peak time, all of which resulted in a significant reduction in the retention time. However, thermophilic temperature (> or = 40 degrees Celsius) was only achieved with 30%, 40% and 50% manure addition for 3, 7 and 9h. Total carbon reductions were in the range of 9.4-10.8% and TKN reductions were in the range of 3.4-6.0%. Neither the nitrogen nor the moisture content were limiting factors as the C:N ratio remained in the range of 26:1 to 28:1 and the moisture content remained within the optimum range of 58-61%. The maximum temperature of each mixture correlated with the reduction of total carbon, but carbon availability was a limiting factor in these experiments. In order to attain and sustain a thermophilic phase during the composting process, the addition of a readily available carbon source to the tomato should be investigated and carbon type (carbohydrates, proteins and fats) should be taken into account.     

Open windrow composting of polymers: an investigation into the operational issues of composting polyethylene (PE)

This paper investigates the operational issues surrounding the open windrow composting of degradable polyethylene sacks. Areas for consideration were the impact of degradable polyethylene sacks on the composting process, the quality of the finished compost product, and how the use of sacks influenced the on-site processing. These factors were investigated through determining the amount of polymer residue and chemical contaminants in the finished compost product and the daily monitoring of windrow temperature profiles. Site and practical handling considerations of accepting an organic waste contained within PE sacks are also discussed. Statistical analysis of the windrow temperature profiles has led to the development of a model that can help to predict the expected trends in the temperature profiles of open compost windrows where the organic waste is kerbside collected using a degradable PE sack.     

Mass and element balance in food waste composting facilities

The mass and element balance in municipal solid waste composting facilities that handle food waste was studied. Material samples from the facilities were analyzed for moisture, ash, carbon, nitrogen, and the oxygen consumption of compost and bulking material was determined.Three different processes were used in the food waste composting facilities: standard in-vessel composting, drying, and stand-alone composting machine. Satisfactory results were obtained for the input/output ash balance despite several assumptions made concerning the quantities involved. The carbon/nitrogen ratio and oxygen consumption values for compost derived only from food waste were estimated by excluding the contribution of the bulking material remaining in the compost product. These estimates seemed to be suitable indices for the biological stability of compost because there was a good correlation between them, and because the values seemed logical given the operating conditions at the facilities.     

A multivariate approach to the study of the composting process by means of analytical electrofocusing

Three blends formed by: agro-industrial waste, wastewater sewage sludge, and their mixture, blended with tree pruning as bulking agent, were composted over a 3-month period. During the composting process the blends were monitored for the main physical and chemical characteristics. Electrofocusing (EF) was carried out on the extracted organic matter. The EF profiles were analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA) in order to assess the suitability of EF to evaluate the stabilisation level during the composting process. Throughout the process, the blends showed a general shifting of focused bands, from low to high pH, even though the compost origin affected the EF profiles. If the EF profile is analyzed by dividing it into pH regions, the interpretation of the results can be affected by the origin of compost. A good clustering of compost samples depending on the process time was obtained by analyzing the whole profile by PCA. Analysis of EF results with PCA represents a useful analytical technique to study the evolution and the stabilisation of composted organic matter.     

Biodegradation of Whey Protein-Based Edible Films

The biodegradability of the edible films made of whey proteins by disulfide cross-linking was investigated. Whey protein concentrate (WPC) and whey protein isolate (WPI) films were subjected to microbial degradation using Pseudomonas aeruginosa and composting burial degradation. Results from the microbial degradation showed that whey protein films could support the growth of P. aeruginosa. The bacterial growth characteristics were well described using the Gompertz model. WPC films degraded faster than WPI films, suggesting that the biodegradability of protein films is associated with the film composition and the extent of covalent cross-linking. WPI films buried in a compost pile began to degrade in two days and became darker over time. More than 80% of total solids were lost in 7 days.     

Maturity assessment of compost from municipal solid waste through the study of enzyme activities and water-soluble fractions

In this work the dynamics of biochemical (enzymatic activities) and chemical (water-soluble fraction) parameters during 100 days of municipal solid wastes composting were studied to evaluate their suitability as tools for compost characterization. The hydrolase (protease, urease, cellulase, beta-glucosidase) and dehydrogenase activities were characterized by significant changes during the first 2 weeks of composting, because of the increase of easily decomposable organic compounds. After the 4th week a "maturation phase" was identified in which the enzymatic activities tended to gently decrease, suggesting the stabilisation of organic matter. Also the water-soluble fractions (water-soluble carbon, nitrogen, carbohydrates and phenols), which are involved in many degradation processes, showed major fluctuations during the first month of composting. The results obtained showed that the hydrolytic activities and the water-soluble fractions did not vary statistically during the last month of composting. Significant correlations between the enzymatic activities, as well as between enzyme activities and water-soluble fractions, were also highlighted. These results highlight the suitability of both enzymatic activities and water soluble fractions as suitable indicators of the state and evolution of the organic matter during composting. However, since in the literature the amount of each activity or fraction at the end of composting depends on the raw material used for composting, single point determinations appear inadequate for compost characterization. This emphasizes the importance of the characterization of the dynamics of enzymatic activities and water-soluble fractions during the process.     

Estimating uncertainties in the life cycle assessment of composting household biowaste and urban green waste in Germany

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of waste treatment processes is often associated with considerable uncertainties. The aim of this study is to estimate the total uncertainty in the modelled composting system and the influence of material and process parameters on the uncertainty. Four composting combinations with fresh (FC) and mature substrate compost (MSC) from partially enclosed (PEC) and open composting (OC) were investigated. Perturbation analysis was used to determine the effect of parameters on the result and Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate the total uncertainty. This study showed that the production of MSC using PEC had the lowest overall impacts across all impact categories except ozone depletion. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation showed that comparing composting options was challenging. The sensitivity ratios obtained from the perturbation analysis showed that the process parameter percentage of carbon fraction degraded was the most influential for FC. In MSC, the moisture content in the input material and the substitution factor used for peat were the most influential. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated the overall uncertainty of the model and its relevance when comparing results between combinations. The perturbation analysis identified the parameters that required more accurate data to reduce the uncertainty in the model.

Graphical abstract