Wave action: the environmental trigger for hatching in the California grunion Leuresthes tenuis (Teleostei: Atherinopsidae)

 California grunion Leuresthes tenuis (Teleostei: Atherinopsidae) emerge from the ocean to spawn on beaches of southern California. Grunion eggs do not hatch at a set developmental age, but remain in the sand until turbulent surf at high tide washes them out to sea. In previously studied fishes and amphibians that lay eggs terrestrially, low oxygen is the trigger for hatching in water, and high oxygen tensions inhibit hatching. For the grunion, however, eggs placed in air, seawater and oil did not hatch at any at oxygen tension until they were agitated in fluid. Following agitation in seawater, all eggs hatched within several minutes. Grunion eggs in normoxic or hyperoxic water hatched significantly faster than eggs agitated at the lowest oxygen tensions. Mechanical agitation, not hypoxia, is the environmental trigger for hatching in California grunion eggs. Received: 15 May 1999 / Accepted: 5 April 2000     

Chemical mediation of invertebrate defensive behaviors and the ability to distinguish between foraging and inactive predators

When the predatory sea star Pycnopodia helianthoides was placed upstream, the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus responded defensively by extending and opening its globiferous pedicellariae. No pedicellaria response was given in control seawater or when the sea star was downstream. The snail Tegula funebralis responded by moving up vertical surfaces when Pycnopodia helianthoides or when Pisaster ochraceus were placed upstream. When these sea stars were introduced downstream, the snail's response was not significantly different from that in control seawater. Water collected from an aquarium containing a single sea star was sufficient to trigger the response of S. purpuratus and T. funebralis; the physical presence of the sea star was not essential. This indicated that a chemical stimulus was involved, and the lack of responses when sea stars were downstream argued strongly against the possible additional involvement of visual or vibrational stimuli. S. purpuratus gave stronger pedicellaria responses to water flowing over an active Pycnopodia helianthoides than to water flowing over the same sea star when it was inactive. The significance of the ability to distinguish between actively foraging and inactive predators is discussed, and a mechanism is proposed to explain differences in the amount of stimulatory chemicals released by active and inactive sea stars.     

Reproductive success in the Caribbean octocoral Briareum asbestinum

For most sessile marine invertebrates the number of offspring produced by an individual is often determined indirectly from counts of eggs present, with the assumption that all or most become viable offspring. Few field data on the actual number of offspring produced per individual (reproductive success) have been reported. We examined reproductive success in the octocoral, Briareum asbestinum (Pallas), by measuring embryo densities on 40 female colonies on two reefs (Pinnacles and House reefs) in the San Blas Islands, Panama from 1986 to 1988. The percentage of female colonies with mature eggs which subsequently released embryos was low, ranging from 46.6% in 1986 to 5.0% in 1988. Reproductive success was significantly different between reefs. Pinnacles reef had significantly more successful colonies (those releasing embryos) than House reef in all three years and significantly higher embryo densities in 1986 and 1987. There was a significant positive correlation between female reproductive success and the density and proximity of nearby males in both 1986 and 1987. In addition, fertile female branches placed 25 cm away from male branches produced significantly more embryos than female branches placed 50 cm away. In 1988 two groups of female branches were placed at distances of <50 cm and 5 m from four large male colonies at Pinnacles reef. Of the 20 female branches placed 5 m from the males none released embryos while 35% (7 of 20 branches) of the branches <50cm from males released embryos. These data indicate that simple counts of mature eggs present within female colonics prior to the reproductive season provide a poor estimate of reproductive success in B. ashestinum and that female reproductive success is positively influenced by the close proximity of males.     

Why are larger convict cichlid (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum) fry sometimes adopted into broods of smaller fry?

Females of Elasmucha grisea defend their eggs and small nymphs against invertebrate predators. Females sometimes guard their clutches side by side on the same birch leaf. We studied benefits of this joint guarding both in the field and in the laboratory. We found that adjacent females had significantly larger clutches than solitary females. In the laboratory, we studied the effectiveness of joint versus single defence against ant (Formica uralensis) predators. We established female pairs from initially singly guarding females by cutting off pieces of leaves with egg clutches and pasting them beside another female guarding her clutch. In the control group the females with their clutches were similarly cut off but these clutches were placed on another leaf without any female. The birch twigs where females guarded their clutches were placed in cages in close proximity to laboratory ant nests. In the experimental treatment, two females guarded their clutches together and at the same nest there was another birch twig without a female. In the control treatment two twigs with one female on each were placed close to another ant nest. Two females defended their clutches significantly more successfully, losing fewer eggs than did the single females. This primitive form of female sociality in parent bugs resembles colonial nesting in birds, where communal defence is also important. However, to our knowledge this is the first experiment where the benefit of joint guarding has been tested directly by manipulating the size of the breeding group rather than by measuring the risk of predation in groups of different size.     

Comparison of three culture methods for Cladophora oligoclona北大核心CSCD

The growth of Cladophora spp. is vigorous in the field, but not good under indoor culture conditions. In order to promote the study on ecology, water environment treatment characteristics, and the development and utilization of Cladophora, the effects of three different culture methods (standing, ventilating, water flowing + ventilating) on biomass, morphology, and photosynthetic activity of C. oligoclona were compared in order to find a suitable method for its indoor culture. The results showed that the culture method of water flowing + ventilating could effectively promote C. oligoclona biomass accumulation; the morphologies in the three culture methods were different. C. oligoclona with increased single cell length and reduced cell diameter was found in the culture method involving water flowing + ventilating; in this method, the length of the main branch and branch of the cell, plant height, and branch length of C. oligoclona were significantly higher than that in the standing and ventilating culture methods (P < 0.05). C. oligoclona cultured in the water flowing + ventilating method also showed a higher photosynthetic activity. In conclusion, among the three culture methods, the water flowing + ventilating culture method is the most suitable for the indoor culturing of C. oligoclona; this method can also provide a technical reference for the further indoor mass culture of C. oligoclona. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

Physiologische Anpassungen eines marinen insekts. II. Die Eigenschaften von schwimmenden und absinkenden Eigelegen

The gelatinous egg-masses of Clunio marinus (Diptera; Chironomidae) consist of a tube of jelly containing up to 175 eggs. The swimming egg-mass of the Atlantic populations (Race A) and the sinking egg-mass of the Baltic populations (Race B) have a higher density than the sea water, on which the female spawns; salinity is not important to the swimming or sinking of the egg-masses. Density and sinking velocity of gelatinous egg-masses from Atlantic midges are significantly higher than those from Baltic midges if the eggs are laid on water of the same salinity. The density of the eggs and the quantitative relation of eggs to jelly are the same in both races. The jelly of the egg-masses from the Baltic Sea race swells more than that from the Atlantic Sea race (increase of volume by absorption of water = 3-fold and 2.4-fold, respectively). During swelling the jelly alters from a trough-like shape into a tube-like from which closes around the eggs. If the surface tension of the spawning medium is lowered by use of detergents, the A-spawn will sink. A- and B-spawns occupy different positions at an oil-water interface. Interference contrast microscopy revealed that the A-jelly forms a well-defined outer line in relationship to the surrounding aqueous medium; this line is missing in the B-jelly. The morphological fine surface structures, as seen by the scanning electron microscope, do not explain the different properties of the A- and B-spawn. Extracts and hydrolysates of jelly material were separated by thin-layer chromatography. The results indicate that the spawn jelly of C. marinus consists of a polysaccharide-protein-complex, similar to the jellies of other invertebrates. It is rather probable that the chemical structure or the components of the jellies from A- and B-populations are not exactly the same; this would explain the different properties described. The ecological significance of swimming and sinking gelatinous egg-masses and the taxonomical position of both midge populations are discussed.     

Seasonal study of planktonic copepods and their benthic resting eggs in northern California coastal waters

Few investigations have examined the occurrence of zooplankton resting eggs in the sea bed of waters deeper than 20 m. In this study the distribution and abundance of planktonic copepods and their benthic resting eggs in coastal waters off northern California, U.S.A., were determined and related to environmental parameters (temperature, salinity, depth, and sediment grain size). Sediment cores, net tows, and CTD profiles were obtained in April and October 1989, and February, April, and October 1990. Water depths in the study area ranged from approximately 60 to 120 m. The mean abundance of eggs was as high as 1.2×10⁵ m^-2 for Acartia clausi Giesbrecht and 1.9×10⁵ m^-2 for Tortanus discaudatus Thompson and Scott. These egg concentrations are comparable to those reported previously for shallower more protected regions. The abundance of eggs in the sediments decreased with increasing depth of the water column. For the region as a whole, eggs were least abundant in muddy sediments. The mean abundance of eggs in the sea bed also varied seasonally and annully. Benthic resting eggs of A. clausi were more abundant in April 1989 than in April 1990, and adults of the species were never found in the plankton samples. The lack of adults is not unusual since results of previous studies indicate that A. clausi is a cold-water species, and in this region water temperatures are colder in summer, than in winter, due to upwelling. Temperature and salinity data indicated that the upwelling season had commenced by the time of the April 1990, but not the April 1989 sampling. Thus, the reduced abundance of benthic eggs in April 1990 may have been due to egg-hatching in response to reduced temperatures. The results suggest that the presence of A. clausi in coastal waters off northern California is linked to recruitment from benthic resting eggs.     

Tolerance of marine calanoid resting eggs: Effects of freezing,desiccation and Rotenone exposure - a field and laboratory study

Tolerance of calanoid resting eggs from bottom sediment in a manipulated marine enclosure (Svartatjønn, western Norway) to freezing, desiccation and exposure to the insecticide Rotenone was examined in 1989 and 1990, both in situ and in the laboratory. Egg abundances in the sediment were compared before and after draining followed by Rotenone treatment. The drained parts of the basin were exposed to both drying and freezing. A significant decrease in hatching success was found in the drained parts during the study (p<0.05,t-test) and in the deepest parts, which were exposed to Rotenone. No significant difference was found in an intermediate zone around the new water level established by the draining. Both drying (at 20°C) and freezing (at –15°C) caused total mortality of the eggs in laboratory experiments. Laboratory experiments also showed that Rotenone concentrations higher than 0.5 ppm resulted in significantly reduced hatching rates, indicating that resting eggs of calanoids tolerate 20 to 100 times higher Rotenone concentrations than do later ontogenetic stages. The operational procedure (i.e. draining and Rotenone treatment) employed in enclosed ponds used for marine fish fry production will, within a 1-yr cycle, reduce the abundance of resting eggs and therefore the potential for self-recruitment of the zooplankton stocks.     

Preferential incubation positions for different sized eggs and their influence on incubation period and hatching asynchrony in Snares crested (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eudyptes robustus</Emphasis>) and yellow-eyed penguins (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Megadyptes antipodes</Emphasis>)

In crested penguins (Eudyptes spp.), second-laid eggs typically hatch before first eggs. Amongst a variety of factors that have been considered as mechanisms underlying this reversal, has been the idea that crested penguins can adjust the degree of hatching asynchrony by manipulating egg positions (i.e. placing the smaller first egg in the supposedly thermally disadvantaged anterior position) during incubation (termed Preferential Incubation Hypothesis). We tested this in the Snares crested penguin (Eudyptes robustus) and the closely related, but synchronously-hatching, yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). Snares crested penguins were more likely to place their first eggs, which are smaller than second eggs, in the anterior incubation position than were yellow-eyed penguins, which have a clutch of two similar-sized eggs. But when yellow-eyed penguins, a non-brood reducing species, were provided with an artificial size-dimorphic clutch, they also placed smaller eggs more frequently in the anterior position, suggesting that a general preference exists among penguins to place smaller eggs in the anterior position. Egg temperatures of small first eggs of Snares crested penguins were higher in the anterior than in the posterior position. Large first eggs in lesser size-dimorphic clutches experienced high temperature differences in relation to position, while small first eggs in greater size-dimorphic clutches were incubated at similar temperatures. In yellow-eyed penguins, large eggs within clutches generally had higher egg temperatures than small eggs. Incubation periods of second eggs declined with increasing egg size. Egg-size variation, rather than egg positioning behaviour, influenced hatching patterns in Snares crested penguins. In lesser size-dimorphic clutches, second eggs were more likely to hatch first while in greater size-dimorphic clutches, small first eggs were more likely to hatch at the same time or before the second eggs. This was similar in yellow-eyed penguins, where second eggs hatched earlier in clutches with large first eggs. Our data contradicts the Preferential Incubation Hypothesis and we conclude that this hypothesis is unlikely to explain the reversed hatching asynchrony in crested penguins.Communicated by C. Brown     

Phosphorus metabolism and water uptake during final maturation of ovaries of teleosts with pelagic and demersal eggs

An earlier study showed large changes in ovarian phosphoprotein, a characteristic component of vertebrate yolk, during post-vitellogenic meiotic maturation (ripening) of ovaries of teleosts with pelagic eggs. Here, the study of four phosphorus-containing ovarian fractions is extended to other teleost families with pelagic eggs and to species with demersal eggs. Fishes were caught in the sea and lakes of western Scotland between 1982 and 1984. In the codGadus morhua, spratSprattus sprattus, dragonetCallionymus lyra, Norway poutTrisopterus esmarkii, saithePollachius virens, lingMolva molva and flounderPlatichthys flesus, all of which spawn pelagic eggs, the massive water influx during ripening which renders the eggs buoyant was accompanied by large changes in yolk phosphoprotein which were apparent as decrease or disappearance of protein phosphorus as conventionally determined. During ripening of the demersal eggs of the herringClupea harengus, both the water uptake and the decrease in protein phosphorus were less pronounced. In the three-spined sticklebackGasterosteus aculeatus, sea sticklebackSpinachia spinachia, sand gobyPomatoschistus minutus and perchPerca fluviatilis, little or no changes in water content or protein phosphorus both usually increased in species with pronounced water uptake and decreased in species with little or no water uptake. Lipid phosphorus showed little change in all species examined except herring, in which it increased. It is concluded that the characteristic changes in phosphoprotein and other phosphorus-containing fractions are most pronounced in species with pelagic eggs exhibiting massive water uptake on ripening, but are found to a lesser extent in species with demersal eggs in which considerable water uptake accompanies ripening.     

Mechanisms of avian egg recognition: Which egg parameters elicit responses by rejecter species?

Summary Some species of North American passerines nearly always reject nonmimetic eggs placed in their nests and have apparently evolved this behavior in response to brood parasitism. Experiments presented here examined the specific egg parameters to which rejecter species respond, the relative tolerances rejecters show towards nonmimetic eggs and the degree to which rejection is limited to eggs of the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), the only parasitic bird widespread in North America.Relative to cowbird eggs, American robin (Turdus migratorius) eggs are larger, blue rather than white and immaculate rather than spotted. Experiments using 10 egg models at 137 nests showed that robins respond to each of these differences (Figs. 2 and 3) but do not usually reject an egg that deviates from their own by only one difference. Eggs that differ in ant two of the three parameters are usually rejected. This built-in tolerance reduces the likelihood that robins will reject their own eggs if these are atypical in size or coloration.Small egg size was the most important parameter eliciting rapid rejections (i.e. within 1 day), probably because differnces in size can be detected by both visual and tactile perception. By contrast, small egg size was the least important parameter determining whether eggs were eventually rejected (i.e. within 5 days, Tables 2 and 3). In terms of their eventual response, robins may be more sensitive to egg coloration than to size because the latter parameter is less reliable in distinguishing between robin and cowbird eggs.Experiments were also carried out at 37 nests of the gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), whose immaculate blue-green egg is only slightly larger than a cowbird egg. Catbirds are much more responsive to white ground color than to maculation (Table 4), perhaps because color is more reliable in distinguishing between catbird and cowbird eggs.Rejecter species exhibit degrees of tolerance towards foreign eggs that are proportional to the divergence between their eggs and those of the cowbird. Birds with eggs strongly divergent from cowbird eggs benefit from being relatively tolerant because they avoid rejecting their own eggs but still act against cowbird eggs. Species with cowbird-like eggs must be relatively intolerant to maximize the chances that cowbird eggs are rejected.Experiments show that rejection is not specific to cowbird eggs. Thus, birds have apparently responded evolutionarily to brood parasitism by developing recognition of their own eggs, rather than by developing recognition and rejection specific to parasitic eggs.     

Flow regime affects building behaviour and nest structure in sticklebacks

Animals usually build nests to provide protection, for themselves or their offspring, from adverse environmental conditions. However, different nest structures may be better at providing protection in different environments. The ability to adjust building behaviour and design of nests in response to variation in environmental conditions is therefore likely to be important in determining individual fitness. Here, we look at how the nests of three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) males differ between still and flowing water conditions. Within flowing water treatments, we find that males select nesting sites with lower than average flow. We also find that nests built in flowing water are smaller and more streamlined than those built in still water. Nests built in flowing water contain more spiggin—an endogenous glycoprotein secreted by nesting males—per gramme of nest material than still water nests, though the absolute spiggin content of nests did not vary with flow regime. These results suggest that male sticklebacks may adjust nest-site selection and nest structure to suit environmental conditions in which they are building. Because flow regime is a factor that is often altered by anthropogenic activities, such as impoundment, channelization and abstraction, this study may also have implications for the conservation of freshwater fish populations.     

Eggshell strength of an obligate brood parasite: a test of the puncture resistance hypothesis

Eggs of several brood parasites have thicker and stronger shells than expected for their size. The present study evaluated the puncture resistance hypothesis for the occurrence of thick-shelled eggs in common cuckoos Cuculus canorus by investigating costs of cuckoo egg ejection in four Acrocephalus warblers—the great reed warbler A. arundinaceus, reed warbler A. scirpaceus, marsh warbler A. palustris and sedge warbler A. schoenobaenus. The three latter species all suffered ejection costs, while ejection was not costly in the larger great reed warbler. The occurrence of ejection costs was negatively related to host bill size. In the marsh warbler, we compared ejection costs in naturally parasitized nests and two experimental treatments, in which broods were parasitized artificially with great reed warbler and conspecific eggs. Hosts damaged their own eggs significantly more often when ejecting the thick-shelled cuckoo eggs than when ejecting the similarly sized but thinner-shelled great reed warbler eggs, providing some support for the puncture resistance hypothesis. Ejection of conspecific eggs did not involve any costs. Furthermore, contrary to predictions derived from the laying damage hypothesis, there was no evidence that egg damage was associated with cuckoo egg laying. Hosts damaging their own eggs during ejection were more likely to subsequently desert their clutches than those that did not. The frequency of clutches smeared with the contents of the ejected egg were positively related to the hypothesized difficulty of foreign egg puncturing. Potential advantages of thicker shells in common cuckoo eggs are discussed.     

Nestmate recognition for eggs in the honeybee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis mellifera</Emphasis> L.)

Colony integrity is fundamental to social insects and is threatened by the reproduction of non-nestmates. Therefore, discrimination between eggs derived from nestmates and non-nestmates would constitute an adaptation to prevent exploitation of the entire cooperative group by unrelated individuals. The removal of nestmate and non-nestmate queen and worker-laid eggs was evaluated in honeybees using colonies of Apis mellifera capensis to test female and of A. m. scutellata to test male eggs. The data show that honeybees can distinguish between nestmate and non-nestmate eggs of both sexes. Moreover, non-nestmate female queen-laid eggs were removed significantly faster than nestmate female worker-laid eggs in A. m. capensis, indicating that nestmate recognition cues can override caste-specific ones. While the experimental manipulation accounts for 37.2% (A. m. scutellata) or 1.6% (A. m. capensis) of variance in relation to egg removal, nestmate recognition explains 33.3% for male eggs (A. m. scutellata) and 60.6% for female eggs (A. m. capensis), which is almost twice as high as the impact of caste (16.7% A. m. scutellata; 25% A. m. capensis). Our data show a stronger effect of nestmate recognition on egg removal in the honeybee, suggesting that cues other than caste-specific ones (viability/kin) can dominate egg removal behavior. In light of intraspecific social parasitism, preventing the reproduction of unrelated individuals (group selection) rather than preferring queens’ eggs (kin selection) appears to be the driving force behind the evolution of egg removal behavior in honeybees.     

Blue eggs do not reduce nest predation in the song thrush,Turdus philomelos

Summary Many passerine birds with open cup-shaped nests lay blue or blue-green eggs. In thrushes, blue eggs may be cryptic and provide camouflage by imitating spots of light on green leaves. Alternatively, egg coloration may be selectively neutral because nest predators detect nests and not eggs, or it may be maladaptive because organisms are not always well adapted to their present environment. I evaluated these hypotheses by studying predation on artificial song thrush (Turdus philomelos) nests with quail eggs, painted either white, blue, or spotted (cryptic to a human eye). Corvids were the major nest predators. For concealed as well as exposed nests, I found no differences in the predation rates of nests with white, blue, or spotted eggs. Predators apparently detected the nests, and not the eggs, first. In a second experiment, I placed egg groups without nests in trees to study the effect of color per se. The predation rate of the spotted egg groups was significantly lower than that of the white and blue egg groups, for concealed as well as exposed egg groups. These results suggest that blue eggs in the song thrush are not cryptic but may be selectively neutral or even maladaptive with regard to nest predation.     

Why do nocturnal orb-web spiders (Araneidae) search for light?

The nocturnal orb-web spider Larinioides sclopetarius lives near water and frequently builds webs on bridges. In Vienna, Austria, this species is particularly abundant along the artificially lit handrails of a footbridge. Fewer individuals placed their webs on structurally identical but unlit handrails of the same footbridge. A census of the potential prey available to the spiders and the actual prey captured in the webs revealed that insect activity was significantly greater and consequently webs captured significantly more prey in the lit habitat compared to the unlit habitat. A laboratory experiment showed that adult female spiders actively choose artificially lit sites for web construction. Furthermore, this behaviour appears to be genetically predetermined rather than learned, as laboratory-reared individuals which had previously never foraged in artificial light exhibited the same preference. This orb-web spider seems to have evolved a foraging behaviour that exploits the attraction of insects to artificial lights. Received: 8 June 1998 / Received in revised form: 18 January 1999 / Accepted: 19 January 1999     

Active protection of unrelated offspring against parasitoids. A byproduct of self defense?

Natural enemies exert selection pressure on their prey. Predators and parasitoids drive their prey into the evolution of novel traits to cope with this stress. When eggs and juveniles are the target of enemies, defense strategies may rely on adults. However, it is not easy to predict whether adults should actively protect unrelated offspring. Females of the golden egg bug (Phyllomorpha laciniata) mainly oviposit on conspecifics of either sex. Females can also lay eggs on their food plant. Eggs placed on plants suffer from a higher mortality caused by natural enemies than eggs carried by bugs. Females never carry their own eggs and males are seldom related to the eggs they carry. We experimentally explored if conspecifics protect the eggs by studying the behavioral interaction between P. laciniata individuals and the specialist egg parasitoid Gryon bolivari. All bugs exhibited active responses against parasitoids regardless of the sex of the bug, the egg load, and their mating status. Most of the responses prevented parasitoids from reaching the eggs, and thus they reduced the risk of egg parasitization. Although responses of bugs were effective to overcome parasitoid attacks, we suggest that egg protection against parasitoids has evolved as a co-opted trait from a general defense of adult bugs against enemies. In this system, egg defense is not an individual's strategy to protect the offspring, but rather a consequence of the eggs being attached to one's body. It may also explain the low parasitization carried eggs suffer in the wild. The results further highlight the idea of conspecifics as an enemy-free space in P. laciniata.     

Influence of UV radiation on the survival of larvae from broadcast-spawning reef corals

Effects of ambient ultraviolet light on the survivorship of eggs and planulae larvae was investigated for three species of broadcast-spawning reef corals, Acropora palmata, Montastraea annularis, and M. franksi. Eggs and larvae from these corals contain high concentrations of lipids (60–70% by weight) and float in surface waters for 3–4 days following spawning. Larvae originating from colonies living at deeper sites on the reef exhibited significantly lower survivorship than conspecifics originating from parents in shallow water when experimentally exposed for up to 4 days to ambient surface levels of ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Concentrations of the UVR-protective compounds correlated positively with survival and matched concentrations found in parent colonies, implying that higher concentrations of ultraviolet B protective compounds are responsible for greater survival of eggs and larvae from shallow compared to deeper-dwelling parents. Ultraviolet B appears to be responsible for most of the observed differences in larval survivorship with ultraviolet A playing a minor or insignificant role. Data presented here indicate that coral recruits on Caribbean reefs and elsewhere may originate primarily from adult colonies dwelling in shallow water.Communicated by P.W. Sammarco, Chauvin     

Biological effects of oil on early development of the Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras

The effects of petroleum hydrocarbons from two crude oils and one fuel oil (No. 1) were studied on the ontogenic development of the Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras L. Herring eggs exposed to water-soluble fractions of the oils at the time of fertilization showed no decrease in numbers of fertilized eggs compared to eggs exposed 6 or 72 h after fertilization. During embryongenesis, treatment with 3.1 to 8.9 ppm or 3.3 to 11.9 ppm total oil hydrocarbons from light fuel oil and the two crude oils respectively, gave rise to alterations in embryonic activity, decreased heart rate, and premature or delayed hatching. Although many larvae hatched from eggs exposed to contaminated water (3.1 to 11.9 ppm total oil hydrocarbons), the majority of the (70 to 100%) were malformed or dead 1 day after hatching. Exposure of eggs to 5.4–5.8 ppm total oil hydrocarbons resulted in significantly (P<0.001) decreased lengths of the larvae. Increased temperature (from 9° to 14°C) aggravated the effects of the oils. The results are discussed in relation to the potential effects of oil spills and chronic oil pollution on fish eggs and larvae in the Baltic Sea.     

Fertilization and early developmental stages of eggs of Clupea harengus pallasi n. maris-albi under fresh-water conditions

Eggs of the White Sea herring Clupea harengus pallasi Val. are laid in the intertidal zone, where they are liable to come under the influence of fresh water. The present paper deals with the effect of fresh-water influence on the egg of the White Sea herring, under experimental conditions. In fresh water, egg and sperm are in an unactivated state and, after transfer into sea water, are capable of re-activation, even after 212/ h exposure. The treated eggs develop until the hatching of normal and viable larvae. The number of eggs which are able to complete development depends upon the period of freshwater exposure, although the correlation between the length of that period and survival rates is not very close. Apparently, this is due both to the ability of C. harengus pallasi eggs to develop parthenogenetically and different qualities of eggs (which were obtained from different females). The morphological features of White Sea herring eggs, induced by experimental fresh-water influence, are very similar to those typical for herring eggs of the genus Ilisha, obtained from natural brackish waters. However, such changes are not characteristic of the eggs of forms from natural fresh and brackish-waters.