中国不同尺度大气污染物排放清单编制工作综述

大气污染物排放清单的编制可以直观表现清单编制地区的污染源状况,为政府制定污染物防控措施提供科学依据。在查阅大量文献的基础上,从清单方法学、区域和城市排放、清单不确定性3个方面对中国大部分地区的大气污染物排放清单编制工作进行了汇总整理。提出了未建立符合我国国情的排放因子和活动水平数据库、排放清单分辨率和不确定性研究水平不高、缺少对不发达地区的清单编制等问题。建议统筹排放清单编制工作,保证基础数据的准确性,逐步建立主要污染物的清单编制技术指南,加强学科间和国际间合作,开拓排放清单新的研究方向。最后,对未来大气污染物排放清单的编制工作提出了展望。     

A Conceptual Nitrate Transport Model and Its Application at Different Scales

Groundwater and surface water pollution from nonpoint sources are problems of increasing concern. Nitrate transport is a crucial part in the whole process of nitrate loss. Previous methods for simulating the nitrate transport process usually involved solving complex advection–dispersion equations and required large amount of parameters and input data, which makes a model application expensive or invalid in terms of computation and data availability. The aim of this research is to develop a simple conceptual method to simulate the nitrate transport. In this paper, a simple conceptual method utilizing the distribution of nitrate loss against cumulative drainage to simulate the nitrate transport process is introduced. The concept and construction of this method are presented, and its applicability at different spatial scales is demonstrated. Results of model application at laboratory, pilot, and catchment scales show that this method has a good capability to simulate the transport of nitrate. Impact of spatial scales on parameters’ values is also discussed. Compared to conventional methods, this method requires fewer parameters, less computing time, and less input data.     

Evaluating the Efficiency of Coagulation in the Removal of Dissolved Organic Carbon from Reservoir Water using Fluorescence and Ultraviolet Photometry

The present study used ultraviolet absorption (UVa) and the florescence intensity (FI) to evaluate the coagulation efficiency for removing dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the raw water from Min-Ter, Li-Yu-Ten and Yun-Ho-Shen reservoirs in Taiwan. The results indicated that the ratio of DOC removal rate and FI removal rate was maintained at about 1 at various coagulant dosages. However, the ratio of DOC removal rate and UVa removal rate decreased as the coagulant dosage increased. In addition, after coagulation, the use of florescence intensity instead of total organic carbon (TOC) is better than UVa for measuring the DOC removal rate of the raw waters gathered in different months from the three reservoirs. Furthermore, a good linear relationship between florescence intensity and DOC removal rate was observed, and the DOC/FI ratio of raw water from each reservoir can be used to predict the DOC residual concentration after enhanced coagulation. This result shows that fluorescence analysis can be used for on-line and continuous monitoring the effectiveness of organic matter removal in water treatment.     

Evaluating the substantive effectiveness of SEA: Towards a better understanding

Evaluating the substantive effectiveness of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is vital in order to know to what extent the tool fulfills its purposes and produces expected results. However, the studies that have evaluated the substantive effectiveness of SEA produce varying outcomes as regards the tool's contribution to decision-making and have used a variety of approaches to appraise its effectiveness. The aim of this article is to discuss the theoretical concept of SEA substantive effectiveness and to present a new approach that can be applied for evaluation studies. The SEA effectiveness evaluation framework that will be presented is composed of concepts of, and approaches to, SEA effectiveness derived from SEA literature and planning theory. Lessons for evaluation can be learned from planning theory in particular, given its long history of analyzing and understanding how sources of information and decisions affect (subsequent) decision-making. Key concepts of this new approach are ‘conformance’ and ‘performance’. In addition, this article presents a systematic overview of process and context factors that can explain SEA effectiveness, derived from SEA literature. To illustrate the practical value of our framework for the assessment and understanding of substantive effectiveness of SEA, three Dutch SEA case studies are examined. The case studies have confirmed the usefulness of the SEA effectiveness assessment framework. The framework proved helpful in order to describe the cumulative influence of the three SEAs on decision-making and the ultimate plan.     

Evaluating the urban climate of a typically tropical city of northeastern Brazil

This study attempted to assess a bioclimate index and the occurrence of an urban heat island in the city of Campina Grande, northeastern Brazil, using data taken from mobile measurements and Automatic Weather Stations (AWS). The climate data were obtained during two representative months, one for the dry season (November 2005) and one for the rainy season (June 2006) at seven points in an urban area. Ten-minute air temperatures recorded by an AWS installed in urban areas were compared to those from a similar station located in a suburban area to assess the urban heat island (UHI). The data were collected using a 23X data logger (Campbell Scientific, Inc.) programmed for collecting data every second. The thermal discomfort level was analyzed by Thom’s discomfort index (DI), and an analysis of variance was applied for assessing if there was any statistically significant difference at the 1% and 5% significance level of thermal comfort among points. Mann–Kendall statistical test was used for identifying possibly significant trends in a time series for air temperature, relative humidity, and class A pan evaporation for the city of Campina Grande. The present study found UHI intensities of 1.48°C and ??0.7°C for the months taken as representative of the dry and rainy seasons, respectively. Summer in the city has partially comfortable conditions while the winter is fully comfortable. There are significant changes in DI hourly values between seasons. Only during the rainy season did all points of the city have a comfortable condition until 8:19 h, at which time they become partially comfortable for the rest of the day. Results indicated that there was a 1.5°C increase in air temperature and a 7.2% reduction in relative humidity throughout the analyzed time series. The DI also showed a statistically significant increasing trend (Mann–Kendall test, p?<?0.01) for the dry and rainy seasons and annual period of approximately 1°C in the last 41 years in the city of Campina Grande.     

不同前处理方法对GC-MS法测定水中多种SVOCs效率的影响

通过对比液液萃取法、大孔吸附树脂法、固相萃取膜法、动态活性炭吸附法和固相萃取小柱法的试验效能,最终选择固相萃取小柱法作为测定水中7大类27种SVOCs的前处理方法,并对其进一步优化。试验表明,该方法在10.0μg/L~500μg/L范围内线性良好,方法检出限为0.003 1μg/L~0.03μg/L,空白加标样的回收率为70.9%~93.8%,RSD≤11.2%。     

Evaluating the effect of rainfall variability on vegetation establishment in a semidesert grassland

Of the operations required for reclamation in arid and semi-arid regions, establishing vegetation entails the most uncertainty due to reliance on unpredictable rainfall for seed germination and seedling establishment. The frequency of successful vegetation establishment was estimated based on a land surface model driven by hourly atmospheric forcing data, 7 years of eddy-flux data, and 31 years of rainfall data at two adjacent sites in southern Arizona, USA. Two scenarios differing in the required imbibition time for successful germination were evaluated—2 or 3 days availability of sufficient surface moisture. Establishment success was assumed to occur if plants could germinate and if the drying front in the soil did not overtake the growth of seminal roots. Based on our results, vegetation establishment could be expected to fail in 32 % of years. In the worst 10-year span, six of ten plantings would have failed. In the best 10-year span, only one of ten was projected to fail. Across all assessments, at most 3 years in a row failed and 6 years in a row were successful. Funding for reclamation seeding must be available to allow reseeding the following year if sufficient amount and timing of rainfall does not occur.     

Climatic Implications of Revised IPCC Emissions Scenarios, the Kyoto Protocol and Quantification of Uncertainties

In December 1997, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) adopted the Kyoto Protocol. This paper describes a framework that models the climatic implications of this international agreement, using Monte Carlo simulations and the preliminary Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change emissions scenarios (SRES). Emissions scenarios (including intervention scenarios), climate sensitivity, and terrestrial carbon sink are the key sampled model parameters. This framework gives prior probability distributions to these parameters and, using a simple climate model, posterior distributions of global temperature change are determined for the future. Our exercise showed that the Kyoto Protocol's effectiveness will be mostly dependent upon which SRES world evolves. In some worlds the Protocol decreases the warming considerably but in others it is almost irrelevant. We exemplified this approach with a current FCCC issue, namely “hot air”. This modelling framework provides a probabilistic assessment of climate policies, which can be useful for decision-makers involved in global climate change management. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Public Policy Aspects of Biological Monitoring: Budget and Land-Use Planning Implications at the County Level

Montgomery County, Maryland faces a growing problem that confronts local governments across the country: the cumulative impacts that population growth and the resulting land-use changes are having on local streams and their accompanying ecosystems. County officials found they needed an affordable tool to serve as a report card for stream health, and began a biomonitoring program in 1994. By 1997 county officials had monitored all 23 watersheds within the county's boundaries, and in 1998 the county published its first Countywide Stream Protection Strategy (CSPS). The County uses the CSPS to prioritize its watershed restoration efforts to those areas most in need of immediate remediation. Six primary programs now support or require the use of information from Montgomery County's biomonitoring program. And, the lessons learned from Montgomery County can help other county and local governments develop similar programs of their own.     

Evaluating the difference between the normalized difference vegetation index and net primary productivity as the indicators of vegetation vigor assessment at landscape scale

Both the net primary productivity (NPP) and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) are commonly used as indicators to characterize vegetation vigor, and NDVI has been used as a surrogate estimator of NPP in some cases. To evaluate the reliability of such surrogation, here we examined the quantitative difference between NPP and NDVI in their outcomes of vegetation vigor assessment at a landscape scale. Using Landsat ETM+ data and a process model, the Boreal Ecosystem Productivity Simulator, NPP distribution was mapped at a resolution of 90 m, and total NDVI during the growing season was calculated in Heihe River Basin, Northwest China in 2002. The results from a comparison between the NPP and NDVI classification maps show that there existed a substantial difference in terms of both area and spatial distribution between the assessment outcomes of these two indicators, despite that they are strongly correlated. The degree of difference can be influenced by assessment schemes, as well as the type of vegetation and ecozone. Overall, NDVI is not a good surrogate of NPP as the indicators of vegetation vigor assessment in the study area. Nonetheless, NDVI could serve as a fairish surrogate indicator under the condition that the target region has low vegetation cover and the assessment has relatively coarse classification schemes (i.e., the class number is small). It is suggested that the use of NPP and NDVI should be carefully selected in landscape assessment. Their differences need to be further evaluated across geographic areas and biomes.     

Evaluating performance of stormwater sampling approaches using a dynamic watershed model

Accurate quantification of stormwater pollutant levels is essential for estimating overall contaminant discharge to receiving waters. Numerous sampling approaches exist that attempt to balance accuracy against the costs associated with the sampling method. This study employs a novel and practical approach of evaluating the accuracy of different stormwater monitoring methodologies using stormflows and constituent concentrations produced by a fully validated continuous simulation watershed model. A major advantage of using a watershed model to simulate pollutant concentrations is that a large number of storms representing a broad range of conditions can be applied in testing the various sampling approaches. Seventy-eight distinct methodologies were evaluated by "virtual samplings" of 166 simulated storms of varying size, intensity and duration, representing 14 years of storms in Ballona Creek near Los Angeles, California. The 78 methods can be grouped into four general strategies: volume-paced compositing, time-paced compositing, pollutograph sampling, and microsampling. The performances of each sampling strategy was evaluated by comparing the (1) median relative error between the virtually sampled and the true modeled event mean concentration (EMC) of each storm (accuracy), (2) median absolute deviation about the median or "MAD" of the relative error or (precision), and (3) the percentage of storms where sampling methods were within 10% of the true EMC (combined measures of accuracy and precision). Finally, costs associated with site setup, sampling, and laboratory analysis were estimated for each method. Pollutograph sampling consistently outperformed the other three methods both in terms of accuracy and precision, but was the most costly method evaluated. Time-paced sampling consistently underestimated while volume-paced sampling over estimated the storm EMCs. Microsampling performance approached that of pollutograph sampling at a substantial cost savings. The most efficient method for routine stormwater monitoring in terms of a balance between performance and cost was volume-paced microsampling, with variable sample pacing to ensure that the entirety of the storm was captured. Pollutograph sampling is recommended if the data are to be used for detailed analysis of runoff dynamics.     

Investigation on Temporal Variation in Methane Emission from Different Rice Cultivars under the Influence of Weeds

A study of temporal variation in methane efflux from the rice-fields indicated that weeds could modulate the CH4 emission by transporting atmospheric O2 more efficiently than rice plants to the rhizosphere, which suppressed CH4 formation in the oxic condition, inhibiting methanogenic activity. A more oxic environment in the sediment was reflected by the higher redox potential in the weed growing plots. Besides, cultivar differences in methane efflux might be attributed to various plant activities, more importantly root exudation, development of aerenchyma and the biomass. Peak emission of CH4 at the flowering stage in all the rice cultivars was associated with maximum extension of root mat, releasing exudates, which serve as carbon source for the methanogenic bacteria for CH4 formation.     

Evaluating the Use of Ergosterol as a Bioindicator for Assessing Fungal Response to Water Quality

This study investigated the in situ productionof fungal biomass on presterilized woody substratessubmerged in natural estuarine and freshwater bodiesenriched with nitrogen and phosphorus-containingchemical compounds. Results suggest that themembrane-bound sterol ergosterol may hold significantpromise as an quantitative indicator of fungalresponse to water quality. We suggest that realisticassessment of the environmental health of naturalwaters should include a suite of bioassays that couldmeasure the response of living organisms to pollutionmuch more directly than could be predicted by current,indirect monitoring techniques.     

机动车不同速度下外噪声变化与衰减关系研究

通过在机动车测试场进行单辆机动车行驶状况的实验,研究机动车车型大小、行驶速度快慢与噪声量大小的关系,同时研究不同距离下机动车行驶外噪声的衰减规律。数据结果显示,测试条件下,噪声量随着速度提升而增加,呈线性关系或对数关系;相同速度下,大型车的噪声量比小型车的高8.1～11.0dB;在一定距离范围内,距离每增加3.5m,机动车噪声量将衰减2.2～3.0dB。     

Assessing the Impact of Carbon Tax Differentiation in the European Union

To what extent do the welfare costs associated with the implementation of the Burden Sharing Agreement in the European Union depend on sectoral allocation of emissions rights? What are the prospects for strategic climate policy to favor domestic production? This paper attempts to answer those questions using a CGE model featuring a detailed representation of the European economies. First, numerical simulations show that equalizing marginal abatement costs across domestic sectors greatly reduces the burden of the emissions constraint but also that other allocations may be preferable for some countries because of pre-existing tax distortions. Second, we show that the effect of a single country's attempt to undertake a strategic policy to limit impacts on its domestic energy-intensive industries has mixed effects. Exempting energy-intensive industries from the reduction program is a costly solution to maintain the international competitiveness of these industries; a tax-cum-subsidy approach is shown to be better than exemption policy to sustain exports. The welfare impact either policy – exemption or subsidy – on other European countries is likely to be small because of general equilibrium effects.     

Evaluating the metallic pollution of riverine water and sediments: a case study of Aras River

Metallic pollution caused by elements Zn, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, Cd, and Hg in water and sediments of Aras River within a specific area in Ardabil province of Iran is considered. Water and sediment samples were collected seasonally and once respectively from the five selected stations. Regarding WHO published permissible values, only Ni concentration in spring and summer water samples has exceeded the acceptable limit up to four times greater than the limit. The concentration of metals Ni, Pb, and Fe in river water shows a direct relationship with river water discharge and the amount of precipitation. Enhanced soil erosion, bed load dissolution, and runoffs may play a key role in remarkable augmentation of metallic ions concentration. Furthermore, excessive use of pesticides which contain a variety of metallic ions (mainly Cu) in spring and summer may also result in an increase in the metals’ concentration. The potential risk of Ni exposure to the water environment of the study area is assigned to juice, dairy products, edible oil, and sugar cane factories as well as soybean crop lands which are located within the sub-basin of Aras River in the study area. Regarding the sediment samples, the bioavailable metal concentrations indicate an ascending order from the first station towards the last one. In comparison with earth crust, sedimental and igneous rocks the reported metallic concentration values, except for Cd, lie within the low-risk status. Regarding Cd, the reported values in some stations (S2, S4, and S5) are up to ten times greater than that of shale which may be considered as a remarkable risk potential. The industrial and municipal wastewater generated by Parsabad moqan industrial complex and residential areas, in addition to the discharges of animal husbandry centers, may be addressed as the key factors in the sharp increase of metallic pollution potential in stations 4 and 5.     

Evaluating the utility and seasonality of NDVI values for assessing post-disturbance recovery in a subalpine forest

Forest disturbances around the world have the potential to alter forest type and cover, with impacts on diversity, carbon storage, and landscape composition. These disturbances, especially fire, are common and often large, making ground investigation of forest recovery difficult. Remote sensing offers a means to monitor forest recovery in real time, over the entire landscape. Typically, recovery monitoring via remote sensing consists of measuring vegetation indices (e.g., NDVI) or index-derived metrics, with the assumption that recovery in NDVI (for example) is a meaningful measure of ecosystem recovery. This study tests that assumption using MODIS 16-day imagery from 2000 to 2010 in the area of the Colorado’s Routt National Forest Hinman burn (2002) and seedling density counts taken in the same area. Results indicate that NDVI is rarely correlated with forest recovery, and is dominated by annual and perennial forb cover, although topography complicates analysis. Utility of NDVI as a means to delineate areas of recovery or non-recovery are in doubt, as bootstrapped analysis indicates distinguishing power only slightly better than random. NDVI in revegetation analyses should carefully consider the ecology and seasonal patterns of the system in question.     

Evaluating the implementation of cleaner production audit demonstration projects

Cleaner production audit demonstration projects were carried out in two Chinese case factories as part of a project co-sponsored by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency and China's State Environmental Protection Administration. Audit results at both factories were characterized by implementation of predominantly low- or no-cost options, notable reductions in water pollution, and incomplete financial benefit analyses. Two reasons explain the financial benefit analyses' apparent weakness. First, factory audit teams were inexperienced in the techniques and procedures used to determine the economic benefits of cleaner production options. Second, motivations project personnel had for participating in the demonstration projects were not centered on attaining the monetary benefits of implementing cleaner production. Instead, other factors related to the international nature of the project, such as a high degree of state level oversight and prestige, were more influential in affecting the behavior of project personnel.     

Evaluating Kriging as a Tool to Improve Moderate Resolution Maps of Forest Biomass

The USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis program (FIA) recently produced a nationwide map of forest biomass by modeling biomass collected on forest inventory plots as nonparametric functions of moderate resolution satellite data and other environmental variables using Cubist software. Efforts are underway to develop methods to enhance this initial map. We explored the possibility of modeling spatial structure to make such improvements. Spatial structure in the field biomass data as well as in residuals from the map was investigated across 18 ecological zones in the Interior Western U.S. Exploratory tools included directional graphs of summary statistics, three dimensional maps, Moran’s I correlograms, and variograms. Where spatial pattern was present, field and residual biomass were kriged, and predictions made for an independent test set were evaluated for improvement over predictions in the initial biomass map. While kriging has some potential benefit when analyzing the field data and exploring spatial structure, kriging residuals resulted in little or no improvement in the initial biomass map developed using Cubist software. Stationarity assumptions, variogram behavior, and appropriate model fitting strategies are discussed.