Building disaster-resilient communities: The road to the second World Conference on Disaster Reduction, January 2005, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan

The statistics paint a shocking picture: Over the past ten years around 7,000 ‘natural’ disasters have occurred, killing more than 300,000 people and resulting in over US$800 billion in economic losses (Munich Re, 2003). Increasing interest in global warming has provoked intense debate on the issue of climate change and its implications for more frequent and intense extreme weather events, placing more people at risk than ever. While all countries may be threatened by natural hazards, experience shows that developing countries are disproportionately affected, with losses sometimes exceeding years of hard‐won and desperately needed economic development. The World Conference on Disaster Reduction,1 to be held in Japan in 2005, aims to address these and other crucial issues that are posing an unprecedented challenge to the international community.     

Adaptation to Climate Change in Developing Countries

Adaptation to climate change is given increasing international attention as the confidence in climate change projections is getting higher. Developing countries have specific needs for adaptation due to high vulnerabilities, and they will in this way carry a great part of the global costs of climate change although the rising atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations are mainly the responsibility of industrialized countries. This article provides a status of climate change adaptation in developing countries. An overview of observed and projected climate change is given, and recent literature on impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation are reviewed, including the emerging focus on mainstreaming of climate change and adaptation in development plans and programs. The article also serves as an introduction to the seven research articles of this special issue on climate change adaptation in developing countries. It is concluded that although many useful steps have been taken in the direction of ensuring adequate adaptation in developing countries, much work still remains to fully understand the drivers of past adaptation efforts, the need for future adaptation, and how to mainstream climate into general development policies.     

The challenge of sustainable development in small island developing states: case study on tourism in the Caribbean

Small island developing states (SIDS) in the Caribbean have long specialised in primary commodity exports, and traditional export sectors continue to be a major source of employment. The challenge of sustainable development for the Caribbean SIDS has two dimensions. The first is to adjust to the economic and social impact of the loss of preferential markets for traditional exports and of the dismantling of the ISI apparatus erected during the post-World War II period. The second is to ensure that existing and new patterns of production and consumption comply with the criteria for sustainable development, which is here defined as environmental, socio-cultural and economic sustainability.
This article outlines the potential contribution of sustainable tourism to the larger goal of sustainable development in the SIDS in the Caribbean. It reviews current literature on sustainable development and sustainable tourism, particularly their application to the Caribbean SIDS, and evaluates the Caribbean tourism industry from the point of view of sustainable tourism. Conclusions are drawn and proposals made for a policy-oriented agenda in support of the quest for sustainable tourism in the SIDS in the Caribbean.     

The vulnerability and resilience of small island developing states in the context of globalization

In spite of the wide diversity in the economic performance of small island developing states (SIDS), the apparent prosperity of several SIDS has entailed a global misrepresentation of the economic situation of these countries. While their vulnerability to natural disasters is not denied, the general risk of economic marginalization that many SIDS face in the context of globalization may not have received sufficient attention. The paper attempts to highlight what matters most in the consideration of the economic vulnerability of SIDS and in the debate to prevent their marginalization. It examines the main types of external shocks to which SIDS are vulnerable, and discusses the economic handicaps that are fundamental causes of this vulnerability. Economic specialization (with the predominance of international trade in services) is then a central notion in the analysis of island vulnerability: a better specialization, which may involve diversification and always implies greater international competitiveness, can reduce the exposure or vulnerability of SIDS to external shocks, and induce greater economic stability in these countries. Hence the importance of developing policies to circumvent the specific handicaps of islands and facilitate the realization of new trading opportunities through an emulative use of globalization forces.     

Environment and development in the Republic of the Marshall Islands: Linking climate change with sustainable fisheries development

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a major custodian of one of the ocean's major natural resources: tuna. The commercial tuna fisheries sector is the most important economic sector in the RMI and is thus a substantial contributor to this tiny island nation's GDP. Tuna catch and its associated revenues has fluctuated in line with climatic events such as the El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and, in the last decade, national fisheries development policies have begun to capitalize on the positive effects that ENSO warm events have had on the tuna populations. However, global warming is expected to have a significant impact on ENSO, and not necessarily in positive ways. This paper will focus on the relationship between environment and economic development in the RMI fisheries sector. In particular, the linkages between global warming and its effects on the tuna fisheries sector must be better understood and uncertainties accounted for so that impacts are appropriately addressed and integrated into sustainable fisheries development policies. Conclusions reached are that new fisheries development strategies that emphasize environmental‐based planning are required. The emerging ecosystem‐based approach to fisheries management is a start, as are the various international initiatives in furthering our understanding of the linkages between climate and ocean systems currently underway.     

The ecohealth system and the community engagement movement in foundations: A case study of mutual benefits from grants funded by the United Nations Foundation

Ecohealth is a process for identifying key environmental determinants causing mortality or morbidity and combating them by mobilizing multiple social sectors. Evolving out of the concept of environmental health, ecohealth provides a framework for long‐term sustainability. The health outcomes anticipated by environmental interventions are part of a long‐term agenda and require fundamental groundwork for the growth of community‐driven development. Building long‐term sustainability requires that two key approaches be developed through ecohealth. The first is the strengthening of local community institutions, whether formal or informal. The second is building financial mechanisms that are more diversified and less reliant on a single donor. As a result, the ecohealth system provides an opportunity for foundations to empower communities, build cross‐cutting cooperation, and gain knowledge through projects. If people's environmental behaviour is to change and be sustained in the long term to produce desired health outcomes, this will require all members of society to be capable of functioning within the existing institutional infrastructure. This means that not only do formal institutions need to become more accessible but also that concepts relating to local informal institutions must be incorporated into ecohealth projects. It is imperative that we identify and understand relevant local institutions and how they can be transformed so that new environmental forms of behaviour can be sustained and result in positive health outcomes. The intersection of environmental and health concerns provides an ideal area in which the gap between government and civil society can be bridged — not only providing solutions to ecohealth concerns, but building government capacity in general and making these positive changes sustainable in the long term. This article is a case study, based on several United Nations Foundation grants. It outlines the significance of traditional community organizations, the breadth of their long‐term relations with communities, their resources, and the adoption of sustained forms of behaviour. In addition, the article highlights the role that international foundations can play in creating innovative financing mechanisms through community‐based foundations.     

The injustice of climate change: voices from Africa

Farmers and pastoralists in Africa are remarkably consistent across countries in how they report climate is changing. These changes are still relatively small but, combined with the effects of chronic poverty, disease and environmental degradation, are already having severe human consequences. The changes are consistent with what is expected to occur due to man-made global warming and will increase. Women are especially impacted. Africa is least responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, but will suffer some of the most damaging consequences. Adaptation is essential. This will require finance from international sources. However, there is much African governments can and should do to start. Boosting adaptation to current climatic variability and shocks and tackling poverty will bring benefits today and for the future.     

Green economy: Private sectors’ response to climate change

The focus of this paper is to present a discussion of the role of the private sector in response to the need for climate change adaptations. The study, which was conducted through a literature review, investigates the concept of the green economy and climate change, as well as businesses’ commitment to advance climate actions in ways that build resilience in vulnerable communities in developing countries. The paper calls on companies with national, regional, and/or global reach to adopt or develop strategies that improve resource efficiency, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and reduce the loss of biodiversity. Businesses can accelerate this transition by aligning their investments with climate change adaptation opportunities, and thus, “green” the economy. In addition, green growth could be achieved through tactical public and private investments in mitigating climate change. The paper concludes that the private sector is a key sector in addressing the challenges of vulnerable communities, and it has much to contribute to the planning, development, and implementation of climate adaptation strategies, including sector‐specific expertise, technology, efficiency, financing, and entrepreneurship. Finally, some social conditions and environmental boundaries have been highlighted in this paper to attract the attention of business leaders who are trying to build initiatives and advance climate actions that will reduce socio‐community risks from climate change. Also, comprehensive initiatives and strategies have been recommended to private companies seeking to address climate vulnerabilities.     

FRONTIER AREAS, RESOURCES, AND DEVELOPING NATIONS: THE CASE OF GUATEMALA

The conscientious and planned integration of frontier areas into the national economy can at least partially alleviate both environmental and economic problems that are common to many developing countries. Full development of the agricultural potential of frontier areas can lessen the environmental deterioration often found in traditionally settled regions. Exploitation of mineral resources, in particular energy resources, can lessen economic burdens associated with increased costs of imported energy. The authors examine how recent international developments have spurred the government of Guatemala to undertake measures designed to develop a previously underutilized region. The short term negative consequences of increased costs for imported grains and petroleum may well have a positive result in the long term insofar as they lead to more balanced and rational use of land and resources.     

A Decision Support Framework for Environmental Planning in Developing Countries

This paper presents a decision support framework for environmental planning in developing countries. The interest in protecting the natural environment from pollution gained increased importance in the 1990s with a push by world communities for sustainable development. Developing countries as well as the industrialized nations are expected to cut down on pollution and control the use of non-renewable natural resources. Although the concept of sustainable development sounds plausible, it is difficult to implement in many countries due to their conflicting goals. The world-wide targets on emissions, use of fossil fuels, reduction in water and atmospheric pollution require the participation of every nation. These goals are not easily achievable by some of the poorer developing countries partly because of their economic dependence on natural resources and partly because of their inability to afford more modern and efficient technologies. Thus, environmental planning goals are often in conflict with the development,social and economic needs of a country. In this paper, we develop a decision support framework that utilizes multicriteria and optimization models to address environmental planning problems. This framework is based on identifying the priorities of conflicting goals by working through and reducing the conflicts. A strategic planning framework is introduced into the decision support system since national planning is a strategic issue and these goals can only be achieved by adopting a systemic view.     

Sources of Deforestation in Tropical Developing Countries

/ Key causes of tropical deforestation are investigated using cross-sectional data for 90 developing countries for the period 1981-1990. Regression results reveal that deforestation is associated with both development and scarcity. Deforestation accelerates with expanding infrastructure, trade, debt, investment in the human capital base, and resource-based economic expansion. On the other hand, absolute and relative scarcities-manifested by growing population pressures, food and land shortages, fuelwood dependency, and inequalities in access to land-are also key factors explaining forest loss. Thus, results point to a fundamental environmental conundrum: Development is required if countries are to alleviate scarcity-driven forms of forest exploitation but is itself a major cause of deforestation. Can countries balance development goals with forest protection? Setting aside the issue of its practical realization, the paper concludes that forest sustainable development cannot be achieved by implementing simple technical improvements in land-use practices alone. Securing the foundations for the sustainability of the forest base will require that countries address the underlying social processes driving tropical forest loss as well.KEY WORDS: Tropical deforestation; Developing countries; Rural land-use practices; Development; Scarcity.     

Linkages between biodiversity conservation and global climate change in small island developing States (SIDS)

Global climate change is an important cause of biodiversity loss. The conservation, sustainable management and use of biodiversity resources are key factors that can be effectively used to minimize the adverse impacts of global climate change. Efforts to understand and address the linkages between global climate change and biodiversity loss are both urgent and timely. Integrating responses related to these two global environmental challenges is especially relevant for small island developing States (SIDS) because the adverse impacts of climate change can impose severe stresses on biodiversity resources that are fragile, vulnerable and already under stress and the people who depend upon them. This paper argues that comprehensive assessments of adverse impacts of global climate change on the biodiversity resources of SIDS, and an improved understanding of relevant climate change related adaptation measures and sustainable energy policies (that are based on the principles of conservation, sustainable management and use of biodiversity resources) will enable SIDS to become more resilient and to develop better response capacities.     

An institutional theoretic investigation on the links between internationalization of Chinese manufacturers and their environmental supply chain management

Increased market internationalization with more and stricter environmental regulations in different countries has caused manufacturers to extend their environmental management practices to cover their supply chain partners. Thus, environmental supply chain management (ESCM) has become an important competitive and environmental strategy for manufacturers to pursue. China, as a global manufacturer, is also facing this balance of economic development with environmental protection. The literature remains unclear on whether internationalization is beneficial or costly when it comes to environmental management practices such as ESCM within China. Further insight into this issue will be useful for organizations in developing and emergent economies to more effectively prepare for internationalizing their operations and markets. Using internationalization drivers that propel the implementation of environmental management practices in the Chinese manufacturing industry, we applied cluster analysis to group a sample of 377 Chinese manufacturers surveyed in 2007 into three clusters: mature internationalization, emergent internationalization, and domestic-focused. Institutional theory within an internationalization context sets the theoretical foundation for evidence that the international environmentally oriented institutional drivers encountered are positively associated with the adoption of ESCM practices by Chinese manufacturers. We also find significant differences in the environmental, economic and operational performance outcomes across the three manufacturer clusters. We conclude that manufacturing organizations experiencing internationalization with a greater extent of adopting ESCM practices tend to perform better.     

Coastal issues for oceanic islands: implications for human futures

Compared to continental areas, most islands have exceptionally long coastlines relative to their total land area. For this reason, islands are uncommonly vulnerable to problems associated with coasts. The future of the human inhabitants of many island states depends intrinsically on the sustainable management of their coasts, a challenge which grows more pressing as island populations increase and the associated demands on island coastlines change and grow. These issues are presented and discussed in this article. The mechanics of the sustainable management of island coasts is itself an important issue. At the national or local level, management is plagued by problems of insufficient and/or imprecise data and understanding that may lead to inappropriate solutions that even exacerbate the problems they are intended to solve. At an inter-governmental or international level, problems associated with the understanding of island environments need to be resolved before optimal management strategies can be developed. This article presents a brief explanation of the nature of coastal vulnerability on oceanic islands, followed by a discussion of several key problems associated with their sustainable development and the role of human and non-human factors in recent environmental change. It discusses the future of oceanic island coasts in the face of both internal and external threats to their sustainable management. It concludes with a blueprint for their survival.     

温室效应与全球变化（四）：通过国际谈判与合作减少全球人为二氧化碳的排放

在限制人为二氧化碳的排放以控制全球变化的问题上，发达国家与发展中国家之间存在着尖锐的利益冲突。目前，大气中人为增加的二氧化碳绝大中份是发达国家在过去１５０年内排放的。它们目前的排放量仍占全球人为排放量的四分之三。发展中国家在经济发展过程中不可避免地要增加二氧化碳的排放量，这是它们正当的发展权利。作者讨论了各种限制人为二氧化碳排放的国际协定方案，认为可交易的二氧化碳排放许可证制度是比较现实的方案。     

A new approach to sustainable tourism development: Moving beyond environmental protection

Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the world. It is an increasingly important source of income, employment and wealth in many countries. Its rapid expansion has, however, had detrimental environmental (and socio-cultural) impacts in many regions. In this article, I examine the main economic benefits and environmental impacts of tourism, and review the development of the international sustainable tourism agenda. While much of international tourism activity takes place within the developed world, this article will focus on the (economic) development of the industry in developing countries I conclude that new approaches to sustainable tourism development in these countries should not only seek to minimize local environmental impact, but also give greater priority to community participation and poverty alleviation. I argue, in particular, that more emphasis should be given to a 'pro-poor tourism' approach at both national and international levels.     

The Ethics of Burden-Sharing in the Global Greenhouse

The Kyoto Protocol on global warming has provoked great controversy in part because it calls for heavier burdens on wealthy countries than on developing countries in the effort to control climate change. The U.S. Senate voted unanimously to oppose any agreement that does not require emissions reductions in low-income countries. The ethics of this position are examined in this paper which shows that there are good moral reasons for supporting the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol. Such a conclusion follows easily from considerations of distributive justice but can also be supported by more narrowly self-interested arguments. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Critical considerations for future action during the second commitment period: A small islands' perspective

If the objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is to be achieved, Parties must commit themselves to meeting meaningful long‐term targets that, based on current knowledge, would minimize the possibility of irreversible climate change. Current indications are that a global mean temperature rise in excess of 2–3 °C would enhance the risk of destabilizing the climate system as we know it, and possibly lead to catastrophic change such as a shutdown of the deep ocean circulation, and the disintegration of the West Arctic Ice Sheet. Observations have shown that for many small island developing States (SIDS), life‐sustaining ecosystems such as coral reefs, already living near the limit of thermal tolerance, are highly climate‐sensitive, and can suffer severe damage from exposure to sea temperatures as low as 1 °C above the seasonal maximum. Other natural systems (e.g., mangroves) are similarly susceptible to relatively low temperature increases, coupled with small increments of sea level rise. Economic and social sectors, including agriculture and human health, face similar challenges from the likely impacts of projected climate change. In light of known thresholds, this paper presents the view that SIDS should seek support for a temperature cap not exceeding 1.5–2.0 °C above the pre‐industrial mean. It is argued that a less stringent post‐Kyoto target would frustrate achievement of the UNFCCC objective. The view is expressed that all countries which emit significant amounts of greenhouse gases should commit to binding reduction targets in the second commitment period, but that targets for developing countries should be less stringent than those agreed for developed countries. Such an arrangement would be faithful to the principles of equity and would ensure that the right of Parties to attain developed country status would not be abrogated.     

国际碳排放权交易模式的更替发展与协同优化路径

实现碳中和是各国应对气候变化的共同选择。碳市场作为以碳排放权交易为核心的市场机制是加速全球碳排放目标实现的重要途径之一。尽管当前全球碳市场的发展仍呈现区域性和碎片化状态,但随着能源危机的加剧,极端气候灾难的不确定性增多,未来通过碳市场领域的国际合作实现全球碳市场的协同以应对气候变化仍是大势所趋。本文试图通过对国际碳市场进行回顾和类型化总结,并就《巴黎协定》下国际碳交易模式的协同困境从技术、制度和参与程度三个维度开展分析。作者认为,如欲加快全球碳交易的协同进程,应尽快完善国际碳交易中的技术适用细节,提升碳交易相关制度的适用力度,扩大碳交易相关制度的适用范围,加强发展中国家的碳市场的基础建设,拓展发展中国家碳交易市场建设支持来源,最终建立全球碳价格统一机制。提前布局研究碳市场的跨境连接方案对于中国而言极具现实意义,本文最后对中国参与全球碳交易市场的国际合作前景作出了展望。     

An assessment of long term ecosystem research activities across European socio-ecological gradients

Integration of European long term ecosystem research (LTER) would provide important support for the management of the pan-European environment and ecosystems, as well as international policy commitments. This does require appropriate coverage of Europe and standardised frameworks and research methods between countries. Emerging interest in socio-ecological systems prompted the present assessment of the distribution of LTER activities across European socio-ecological gradients. This paper presents a European stratification with a 1 km² resolution, delineating 48 broad socio-ecological regions. The dataset is based on an existing biogeophysical stratification constructed using multivariate clustering of mainly climatic variables and a newly developed socio-economic stratification based on an economic density indicator. The coverage of European LTER facilities across the socio-ecological gradients is tested using this dataset. The analysis shows two strong biases in the present LTER effort. Firstly, urban and disturbed regions are consistently under-represented, illustrating a bias for traditional ecological research away from human activity. Secondly, the Mediterranean, for which some of the most extreme global change impacts are projected, is receiving comparatively little attention. Both findings can help guide future investment in the European LTER network – and especially in a Long Term Socio-Ecological Research (LTSER) component– to provide a more balanced coverage. This will provide better scientific understanding of pan-European environmental concerns and support the management of natural resources and international policy commitments in the European Union.