Fertility and air pollution: Some empirical findings

This paper attempts to explain regional differences in fertility rates in the standard metropolitan statistical areas of the United States through socioeconomic factors and air pollution. An important feature of this study is that it uses the most recent data pertaining to a homogeneous sample of observations within a country rather than using data for different countries. Statistical results suggest that given other factors, fertility and the level of air pollution have an inverse relationship. This quantitative effect is statistically significant but the absolute impact is rather low. Our results also suggest that an increase in the level of income, relative education of females, temperature, and the availability of physicians would in the long run reduce fertility rates in the urban areas of the United States.     

Measurement of unregulated emissions: Some heavy duty diesel engine results

Development of analytical capabilities to evaluate unregulated emissions are discussed. The sampling and analysis methods along with some problem areas are included. Results obtained on three heavy-duty diesel engines are reported. Emphasis was placed on analysis of the particulate fraction including the solvent extractable material. Preliminary experiments suggest appreciable quantities of organic extract and BaP pass through the primary filter. Other species analyzed to obtain a baseline for emission reduction research included aldehydes, sulfates, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen cyanide. Of primary concern is the proper assessment of the results.     

The relationship between socio-economic indicators and air pollution in England and Wales: implications for environmental justice

This paper investigates the distribution of three common air pollutants, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and fine particulates (PM₁₀), in England and Wales with respect to social class, ethnicity and population density. A multilevel model is used to demonstrate regional differences in the social distribution of pollution. The results show that, allowing for ethnicity and population density, there are different relationships between socio-economic status and exposure to air pollution within different regions in England and Wales. These differences suggest that national legislation introduced to reduce air pollution levels may give rise to environmental injustice, with geographical and social differences in the costs and benefits arising to the population due to such legislation. Received: 24 February 1999 / Accepted: 2 September 1999     

Using air pollution based community clusters to explore air pollution health effects in children

To study respiratory health effects of long-term exposure to ambient air pollutant mixture, we observed 7058 school children 5-16 years of age living in the four Chinese cities of Lanzhou, Chongqing, Wuhan, and Guangzhou. These children were enrolled from elementary schools located in eight districts, one urban district and one suburban district in each of the above cities. Ambient levels of PM(2.5), PM(10-2.5), total suspended particles (TSP), SO(2), and NO(x) were measured in these districts from 1993 to 1996. Based on a cluster analysis of arithmetic mean concentrations of PM(2.5), PM(10-2.5), (TSP-PM(10)), SO(2), and NO(x), we classified these children into four ordinal categories of exposure to ambient air pollutant mixtures. We tested for exposure-response relationships using logistic regression models, controlling for relevant covariates. We observed monotonic, positive relationships of exposure to the pollutant mixture with prevalence rates of cough with phlegm and wheeze. Other outcomes were not associated with the exposure in a monotonic exposure-response pattern. Even so, odds ratios for cough, phlegm, bronchitis, and asthma in the higher exposure district clusters were all higher than in the lowest exposure district cluster. We found evidence that exposure to the pollutant mixtures had adverse effects on children living in the four Chinese cities.     

Investigating the relationship between air pollution, health and social deprivation in Leeds, UK

This study examines the relationship between air pollution, social deprivation and health in the city of Leeds, UK under a baseline and three distance-based road user charging (RUC) scenarios set at 2 pence, 10 pence and 20 pence/km. Through application of a series of linked models of traffic, emission and pollutant dispersion, air quality was modelled in response to RUC scenarios. The pollutant modelled were NO(2), PM(10), CO, benzene and 1,3-butadiene, though results of NO(2) are used in this study. The RUC scenarios were compared with the 'base' scenario, all set for the year 2005. The RUC initiatives result in the differences in ambient concentrations of NO(2). The study correlates NO(2) concentrations with derived indices of social deprivation and health. The study concludes that positive but weak relationship exists between air quality and social deprivation, and indicates that deprived population groups are disproportionately exposed to higher NO(2) levels. The relationship between air quality and health status of the population is weak. There is a strong relationship between social deprivation and health status of the population. The study concludes that RUC scenarios result in reducing disparity between affluent and deprived populations.     

Relationship between air pollution and daily mortality in a subtropical city: Taipei, Taiwan

Air pollution has been associated with daily mortality in numerous studies over the past decade. However most of these studies were conducted in the United States and Europe with relatively few done in Asia. In the current study, the association between ambient air pollution and daily mortality in Taipei, Taiwan's largest city which has a subtropical climate was undertaken, for the period 1994-1998 using a case-crossover analysis. This design is an alternative to Poisson time series regression for studying the short-term adverse health effects of air pollution. The air pollutants examined included particulate matter (PM(10)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), and carbon monoxide (CO). The largest observed effect, which was without statistical significance, was seen for NO(2) and CO levels on deaths due to respiratory diseases (ORs=1.013 and 1.014, respectively). The well established link between air pollution levels and daily mortality may not be as strong in cities in subtropical areas, although other factors such as differences in pollutant mix or the underlying health of the population may explain the lack of a strong association in this study. Further studies of this type in cities with varying climates and cultures are needed.     

Traffic-related air pollution and health co-benefits of alternative transport in Adelaide,South Australia

BackgroundMotor vehicle emissions contribute nearly a quarter of the world's energy-related greenhouse gases and cause non-negligible air pollution, primarily in urban areas. Changing people's travel behaviour towards alternative transport is an efficient approach to mitigate harmful environmental impacts caused by a large number of vehicles. Such a strategy also provides an opportunity to gain health co-benefits of improved air quality and enhanced physical activities. This study aimed at quantifying co-benefit effects of alternative transport use in Adelaide, South Australia.MethodWe made projections for a business-as-usual scenario for 2030 with alternative transport scenarios. Separate models including air pollution models and comparative risk assessment health models were developed to link alternative transport scenarios with possible environmental and health benefits.ResultsIn the study region with an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2030, by shifting 40% of vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) by passenger vehicles to alternative transport, annual average urban PM_2.5 would decline by approximately 0.4 μg/m³ compared to business-as-usual, resulting in net health benefits of an estimated 13 deaths/year prevented and 118 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) prevented per year due to improved air quality. Further health benefits would be obtained from improved physical fitness through active transport (508 deaths/year prevented, 6569 DALYs/year prevented), and changes in traffic injuries (21 deaths and, 960 DALYs prevented).ConclusionAlthough uncertainties remain, our findings suggest that significant environmental and health benefits are possible if alternative transport replaces even a relatively small portion of car trips. The results may provide assistance to various government organisations and relevant service providers and promote collaboration in policy-making, city planning and infrastructure establishment.     

Estimation of age-related vulnerability to air pollution: assessment of respiratory health at local scale

This paper demonstrates association of short-term variation in pollution and health outcomes within the same geographical area for a typical urban setting in the northern part of the UK from time series analysis. It utilises publicly available datasets for regulated air pollutants (PM??, NO?, SO?, CO and O?), meteorology and respiratory hospital admissions (and mortality) between April 2002 and December 2005 to estimate the respiratory health effect of pollution exposure, mainly in the elderly. Our results show that PM?? and O? are positively associated with respiratory hospital admissions in the elderly, specifically in the age group 70-79. CO effects seem to be concentrated on the most elderly age group (80+) whereas NO? seems to have the opposite age-related effect, with lower effects on the more elderly.     

Sectoral marginal abatement cost curves: implications for mitigation pledges and air pollution co-benefits for Annex I countries

Using the GAINS (Greenhouse Gas–Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies) model, we derived Annex I marginal abatement cost curves for the years 2020 and 2030 for three World Energy Outlook baseline scenarios (2007–2009) of the International Energy Agency. These cost curves are presented by country, by greenhouse gas and by sector. They are available for further inter-country comparisons in the GAINS Mitigation Efforts Calculator—a free online tool. We illustrate the influence of the baseline scenario on the shape of mitigation cost curves, and identify key low cost options as well as no-regret priority investment areas for the years 2010–2030. Finally, we show the co-effect of GHG mitigation on the emissions of local air pollutants and argue that these co-benefits offer strong local incentives for mitigation.     

Association between long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality in France: A 25-year follow-up study

IntroductionLong-term exposure to air pollution (AP) has been shown to have an impact on mortality in numerous countries, but since 2005 no data exists for France.ObjectivesWe analyzed the association between long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality at the individual level in a large French cohort followed from 1989 to 2013.MethodsThe study sample consisted of 20,327 adults working at the French national electricity and gas company EDF-GDF. Annual exposure to PM₁₀, PM_10–2.5, PM_2.5, NO₂, O₃, SO₂, and benzene was assessed for the place of residence of participants using a chemistry-transport model and taking residential history into account. Hazard ratios were estimated using a Cox proportional-hazards regression model, adjusted for selected individual and contextual risk factors. Hazard ratios were computed for an interquartile range (IQR) increase in air pollutant concentrations.ResultsThe cohort recorded 1967 non-accidental deaths. Long-term exposures to baseline PM_2.5, PM_10-25, NO₂ and benzene were associated with an increase in non-accidental mortality (Hazard Ratio, HR = 1.09; 95% CI: 0.99, 1.20 per 5.9 μg/m³, PM_10-25; HR = 1.09;95% CI: 1.04, 1.15 per 2.2 μg/m³, NO₂: HR = 1.14; 95% CI: 0.99, 1.31 per 19.3 μg/m³ and benzene: HR = 1.10; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.22 per 1.7 μg/m³).The strongest association was found for PM₁₀: HR = 1.14; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.25 per 7.8 μg/m³. PM₁₀, PM_10-25 and SO₂ were associated with non-accidental mortality when using time varying exposure. No significant associations were observed between air pollution and cardiovascular and respiratory mortality.ConclusionLong-term exposure to fine particles, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and benzene is associated with an increased risk of non-accidental mortality in France. Our results strengthen existing evidence that outdoor air pollution is a significant environmental risk factor for mortality. Due to the limited sample size and the nature of our study (occupational), further investigations are needed in France with a larger representative population sample.     

Characterizing multi-pollutant air pollution in China: Comparison of three air quality indices

Multi-pollutant air pollution (i.e., several pollutants reaching very high concentrations simultaneously) frequently occurs in many regions across China. Air quality index (AQI) is used worldwide to inform the public about levels of air pollution and associated health risks. The current AQI approach used in China is based on the maximum value of individual pollutants, and does not consider the combined health effects of exposure to multiple pollutants. In this study, two novel alternative indices – aggregate air quality index (AAQI) and health-risk based air quality index (HAQI) – were calculated based on data collected in six megacities of China (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shjiazhuang, Xi'an, and Wuhan) during 2013 to 2014. Both AAQI and HAQI take into account the combined health effects of various pollutants, and the HAQI considers the exposure (or concentration)-response relationships of pollutants. AAQI and HAQI were compared to AQI to examine the effectiveness of the current AQI in characterizing multi-pollutant air pollution in China. The AAQI and HAQI values are higher than the AQI on days when two or more pollutants simultaneously exceed the Chinese Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS) 24-hour Grade II standards. The results of the comparison of the classification of risk categories based on the three indices indicate that the current AQI approach underestimates the severity of health risk associated with exposure to multi-pollutant air pollution. For the AQI-based risk category of ‘unhealthy’, 96% and 80% of the days would be ‘very unhealthy’ or ‘hazardous’ if based on AAQI and HAQI, respectively; and for the AQI-based risk category of ‘very unhealthy’, 67% and 75% of the days would be ‘hazardous’ if based on AAQI and HAQI, respectively. The results suggest that the general public, especially sensitive population groups such as children and the elderly, should take more stringent actions than those currently suggested based on the AQI approach during high air pollution events. Sensitivity studies were conducted to examine the assumptions used in the AAQI and HAQI approaches. Results show that AAQI is sensitive to the choice of pollutant irrelevant constant. HAQI is sensitive to the choice of both threshold values and pollutants included in total risk calculation.     

中国大气环境治理的新启示--来自武汉疫情管控期间的自然实验

在武汉疫情管控期间,企业经济活动和机动车活动水平明显大幅下降,大部分污染源基本停止排放,意味着在此期间全国各地区应该出现优良天气,但是事实上在我国部分地区却出现了严重雾霾天气,这种反预期现象引起人们的普遍关注,甚至怀疑我国大气环境治理是否存在失误。根据这种反预期现象,提出环境污染应当是由流量污染和存量污染共同决定的猜想。为验证这一猜想,分别假设了两种情况:第一种只有流量污染,第二种既有流量污染又有存量污染,并用武汉疫情管控前后的实际排放数据模拟得到空气质量状况,寻找雾霾形成的规律,然后与武汉疫情管控前后实际监测数据进行对比,确定反预期现象的原因。实际数据和模拟数据对比发现,实际情况与假设1不符,与假设2相符。据此认为,大气污染是由当期排放的污染与积累的存量污染共同决定。在此基础上,进一步分析存量污染造成的经济损失,分析表明:2007年被低估1.64亿元,到2017年被低估3.83亿元;在消散率为0.05、贴现率为0.01时,流量、存量和流量与存量损失的差额分别为6.5亿元、50.5亿元和44.0亿元,这意味着2007—2017年总的经济损失被低估44.0亿元。在消散率为0.3、贴现率为0.1时,流量、存量和流量与存量损失的差额分别为4.6亿元、10.5亿元和5.9亿元,这意味着2007—2017年总的经济损失被低估5.9亿元。研究发现,长期累积形成的存量污染是一个被忽视的大气污染源,从而解释了在武汉疫情管控期间低水平经济活动条件下仍然会出现重度大气污染的经验事实。其政策含义在于,制定反污染政策需要根据存量污染的特征进一步完善相关政策设计。     

Future climate and adverse health effects caused by fine particulate matter air pollution: case study for Poland

Ground level air pollution, especially fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), has been associated with a number of adverse health effects. The dispersion of PM_2.5 through the atmosphere depends on several mutually connected anthropogenic, geophysical and meteorological parameters, all of which are affected by climate change. This study examines how projected climate change would affect population exposure to PM_2.5 air pollution in Poland. Population exposure to PM_2.5 in Poland was estimated for three decades: the 1990s, 2040s and 2090s. Future climate conditions were projected by Regional Climate Model RegCM (Beta), forced by the general atmospheric circulation model ECHAM5. The dispersion of PM_2.5 was simulated with chemical transport model CAMx version 4.40. Population exposure estimates of PM_2.5 were 18.3, 17.2 and 17.1 μg/m³ for the 1990s, 2040s and 2090s, respectively. PM_2.5 air pollution was estimated to cause approximately 39,800 premature deaths in the population of Poland in the year 2000. Our results indicate that in Poland, climate change may reduce the levels of exposure to anthropogenic particulate air pollution in future decades and that this reduction will reduce adverse health effects caused by the air pollution.     

空气污染、空间外溢与公共健康——以中国珠江三角洲9个城市为例

空气污染对居民公共健康的影响,引起了人们高度的关注。但大多数学者研究从样本的独立性出发且不考虑内生性问题,忽视区域之间空间相关性,所得结论和政策建议需谨慎对待。为了弥补上述不足,本文基于Grossman中国宏观健康生产函数,选取2001—2014年中国广东省珠江三角洲9个城市作为样本,选择以PM_(10)和PM_(2.5)作为空气污染的代理指标,在充分考虑空间效应和严格假设检验的基础上选择合适的空间计量经济学模型,对此进行实证研究。主要研究结果显示:空气污染对居民的公共健康带来了负面影响,即PM_(10)和PM_(2.5)每增加1%,导致哮喘疾病和内科门诊等疾病人数不断上升,且影响都比较大,尤其是对哮喘疾病的影响分别为0.2236%和0.2272%。经济增长对公共健康均有显著的促进作用,影响最大;其它财政医疗支出、卫生技术人员和人口密度等要素对居民公共健康的影响较小。由于空气污染的负外部性,研究还发现,区域之间空气污染的"溢出效应"对领域居民公共健康存在显著的影响,说明忽视空间自相关性的存在,会使得空气污染对公众健康的估计产生偏差。从长期看,空气污染对本地居民公共健康的直接效应都显著为正,PM_(2.5)间接效应显著为负,但PM_(10)间接效应并不显著。因此,各级政府除了在源头上治理污染物的排放,提高公共健康水平外,还应该打破各自为阵的行政垄断,应该作为一个整体,实现跨区域环保合作,共同治理和制定公共卫生政策等。这对区域之间协同减排和保护居民公共健康具有重要的理论和现实意义。     

Mutagenic and carcinogenic potency of diesel and related environmental emissions: Salmonella bioassay

Due to the expected increase in the percentage of diesel vehicles in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency must evaluate the health effects associated with exposure to diesel emissions. Respirable particles from a variety of combustion sources have the potential of being carcinogenic and mutagenic. The objective of these studies was to determine the relative biological activity of the organic material adsorbed on these particles in in vitro mutagenesis bioassays. The organic extracts from the following series of emission sources were bioassayed in the Salmonella assay for mutagenic activity: (1) a light-duty Oldsmobile diesel 350 engine; (2) a heavy-duty Caterpillar diesel engine; (3) a light-duty Nissan engine; (4) a Volkswagen Rabbit diesel engine; (5) cigarette smoke; (6) roofing tar; (7) coke oven; and (8) a gasoline catalyst Mustang. This paper provides a comparison of these sources within the Salmonella bioassay and also demonstrates how bacterial systems can be used as a quality assurance measure in in vivo testing.     

Air pollution and child health: the impact of brick kiln pollution on children's cognitive abilities and physical health in Pakistan

Environment, Development and Sustainability - This study explores the adverse impact of air pollution, caused by emissions from brick kilns, on the children’s cognitive ability and physical...     

Ambient air pollution and children's lung function in China

ObjectiveTo describe the correlations between ambient air pollutants (TSP, SO₂, NO_x) and the level of children's lung function (FVC, FEV₁, MMEF) in China.MethodsWe collected the research articles on ambient air pollution and children's lung function published from 1985 to 2006 and selected 11 articles finally according to the following criteria: (1) Children between the age of 7 and 15 as objects; (2) Local air quality monitoring results were reported; (3) Strict quality control was taken when testing children's lung function; (4) The results were expressed by the average of measured value. Then we analyzed the correlation relationship between the level of ambient air pollutants and children's lung function and compared the effects of ambient air pollutants on children's lung function of boy and girl.ResultsThe selected articles included the results of 7 cities in China. Among them, the results of 6 cities' studies revealed that the levels of children's lung function were significantly lower in the areas with heavy ambient air pollution than those in the areas with light ambient air pollution. According to the articles, the average levels of TSP were at the range of 0.084 mg/m³–0.835 mg/m³, SO₂ were 0.013 mg/m³–0.929 mg/m³, NO_x were 0.044 mg/m³–0.229 mg/m³. Correlation analysis showed significant negative correlation between the levels of TSP and SO₂ and children's FVC and FEV₁, as well as the levels of NO_x and children's MMEF. The correlation coefficient was ? 0.797 (t = ? 4.384, P = 0.001) between TSP and FVC, ? 0.693 (t = ? 4.190, P < 0.001) between Ln (SO₂) and FVC, ? 0.886 (t = ? 5.392, P = 0.001) and ? 0.685 (t = ? 4.101, P = 0.001) between FEV₁ and TSP and Ln (SO₂), and ? 0.973 (t = ? 5.993, P = 0.027) between NO_xNO_x and MMEF, respectively. The results also suggested that the decreases of lung function for girl with the increasing of ambient air pollution were significantly greater for boy.ConclusionThe levels of ambient air TSP and SO₂ correlated with the damage of the big airway function of children, while NO_xNO_x affected the small airway function chiefly. Furthermore, lung function of girl was more susceptible to ambient air pollutants than boy.     

Associations between maternal exposure to air pollution and traffic noise and newborn's size at birth: A cohort study

BackgroundMaternal exposure to air pollution and traffic noise has been suggested to impair fetal growth, but studies have reported inconsistent findings.ObjectiveTo investigate associations between residential air pollution and traffic noise during pregnancy and newborn's size at birth.MethodsFrom a national birth cohort we identified 75,166 live-born singletons born at term with information on the children's size at birth. Residential address history from conception until birth was collected and air pollution (NO₂ and NO_x) and road traffic noise was modeled at all addresses. Associations between exposures and indicators of newborn's size at birth: birth weight, placental weight and head and abdominal circumference were analyzed by linear and logistic regression, and adjusted for potential confounders.ResultsIn mutually adjusted models we found a 10 μg/m³ higher time-weighted mean exposure to NO₂ during pregnancy to be associated with a 0.35 mm smaller head circumference (95% confidence interval (CI): 95% CI: − 0.57; − 0.12); a 0.50 mm smaller abdominal circumference (95% CI: − 0.80; − 0.20) and a 5.02 g higher placental weight (95% CI: 2.93; 7.11). No associations were found between air pollution and birth weight. Exposure to residential road traffic noise was weakly associated with reduced head circumference, whereas none of the other newborn's size indicators were associated with noise, neither before nor after adjustment for air pollution.ConclusionsThis study indicates that air pollution may result in a small reduction in offspring's birth head and abdominal circumference, but not birth weight, whereas traffic noise seems not to affect newborn's size at birth.     

Human mortality in Cyprus: the role of temperature and particulate air pollution

Climatic change results in increased occurrence of heat waves, and the thermal stress caused by such phenomena is leading to higher levels of heat-related mortality worldwide. This study is the first to examine the effect of extreme weather on mortality in Cyprus. It investigates the individual effect of meteorological indicators on mortality, as well as the role of particulate air pollution (PM₁₀). A generalized linear model (GLM) with quasi-Poisson regression was implemented. GLM included a temperature function and was adjusted for relative humidity and seasonality. The temperature function was developed under a newly developed framework of distributed lag nonlinear models, which capture nonlinearities and delayed effects of heat simultaneously. GLM was extended to examine the confounding effect of air pollution. All the results on heat effects are presented. High temperatures had a significant effect on mortality with increased mortality rates, independent of humidity and seasonality. Mortality risk increased steeply above a temperature threshold. A direct heat effect was shown, with higher risk on the current and next day of a severe heat event. PM₁₀ was not found to have a confounding effect on the temperature–mortality relationship, since the strength of this relationship remained after the inclusion of PM₁₀ in the model. Differences existed between urban and coastal areas.     

Outdoor air pollution and term low birth weight in Japan

IntroductionEvidence has accumulated on the association between ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes. However, most of the previous studies were conducted in geographically distinct areas and suffer from lack of important potential covariates. We examined the effect of ambient air pollution on term low birth weight (LBW) using data from a nationwide population-based longitudinal survey in Japan that began in 2001.MethodsWe restricted participants to term singletons (n = 44,109). Air pollution concentrations during the 9 months before birth were obtained at the municipality level and were assigned to the participants who were born in the corresponding municipality. We conducted multilevel logistic regression analyses adjusting for individual and municipality-level variables.ResultsWe found that air pollution exposure during pregnancy was positively associated with the risk of term LBW. In the fully adjusted models, odds ratios following one interquartile range increase in each pollutant were 1.09 (95% confidence interval: 1.00, 1.19) for suspended particulate matter (SPM), 1.11 (0.99, 1.26) for nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and 1.71 (1.18, 2.46) for sulfur dioxide (SO₂). Specifically, effect estimates for SPM and NO₂ exposure at the first trimester were higher than those at other trimesters, while SO₂ was associated with the risk at all trimesters. Nonsmoking mothers were more susceptible to SPM and NO₂ exposure compared with smoking mothers.ConclusionsAmbient air pollution increases the risk of term LBW in a nationally representative sample in Japan.