东北亚主要沿海国家海洋环境管理比较研究

海洋环境管理对于保护和保全海洋环境、推动海洋经济发展、构建生态文明具有重要意义。由于不同国家和地区的政治、经济、海洋战略和文化背景的差异,海洋环境管理的实施没有一个统一的标准模式,所解决的重点问题也不一样。这种多样性使得目前还没有一套通用的海洋环境管理评价体系。为此,本文以东北亚沿海各国为例,借鉴已有研究,从机构设置、法律体系和海洋环境状况三个方面出发,构建了包含定性和定量指标的海洋环境管理效果评价指标体系,在此基础上对东北亚沿海各国海洋环境管理效果进行定量评价与对比分析。结果表明,在机构设置和法律体系方面,日本领先于其他国家;在海洋环境管理方面,朝鲜较优;综合各方面后,日本表现最优,韩国、中国次之,朝鲜、俄罗斯较差。本研究提出的评价方法,可以较为客观地反映不同政治、经济和文化背景下国家在海洋环境管理方面的努力,可为我国审视自身不足、立足国情构建我国特色的海洋环境管理体制提供重要的方法指导和实践经验。     

中国消费中长期发展趋势及能源环境效应研究

随着消费在经济发展中的比重逐步增加,其引致的能源消耗和污染物排放越来越不容忽视。本研究基于投入产出模型,分别测算了居民消费引致的直接和间接能源消耗与污染物排放,然后参考发达国家相应发展阶段的居民消费结构,展望未来居民消费发展趋势,进一步测算未来居民消费的能源与环境效应。未来我国消费占GDP的比重将稳步上升,到2050年逐步提高到70%以上;居民消费结构将显著调整,食品占比显著下降,仅为15%,文教娱乐、医疗保健和其他服务占比显著上升;居民消费引致的一次能源需求到2050年将达到30.4亿吨标煤,占全社会能源需求的52.4%;化学需氧量、氨氮、二氧化硫和氮氧化物排放量将分别达到2497万t、261万t、1722万t、1157万t,占全社会污染物排放产生量的60%以上。研究表明,进一步强化居民消费产品绿色低碳发展、优化居民消费结构,将成为未来推进我国高质量发展和污染防治的重要领域。     

欧盟游泳场水质监管现状及对我国游泳场水质管理的建议

欧洲国家对游泳场水质的管理由来已久,管理经验丰富,而我国对游泳场水质的管理刚刚起步,仍然存在很多不足。针对目前我国由于监督管理以及某些地区的经营不善出现的一系列游泳场水质问题,本文介绍了欧盟成员国的游泳场水质质量监测管理现状,分别从游泳场水质管理立法、游泳场水质监测方法、游泳场水质评估和等级划分,以及欧盟国家游泳场未来发展趋势等方面,对欧盟国家游泳场水质管理的发展情况进行了分析总结。借鉴欧盟发达国家游泳场的水质管理经验对我国游泳场水质进行监测和管理非常重要,最后提出完善我国游泳场水质管理的一些建议,如建立游泳场水质监测日志,制作游泳场水质信息系统,加强游泳场水质监测技术研究等。希望借助欧盟国家的游泳场管理经验,促进我国游泳场水质管理的进一步发展和完善。     

Thinking Habits into Action: The role of knowledge and process in questioning household consumption practices

Despite occupying a central place in the sustainable development paradigm, calls for individuals in high-income countries to adopt patterns of sustainable consumption have failed to gain ground in the past decade. The low uptake of public messages that emphasise links between the environment and the home are caused by a plethora of 'barriers to action', which range from individual circumstances to public norms and structures. This article argues that in addition to these barriers, consideration of how individuals read and react to sustainable consumption information is important. Based on interviews with participants of a sustainable behaviour change programme called Action at Home, this article considers both how, and in what form, knowledge is mobilised when individuals rethink their personal practices. Using Giddens' structuration theory, a framework is presented. This framework emphasises the importance of 'known' or 'local' information, as well as discursive processes, in addressing individual consumption practices and argues that a 'cultural politics' of sustainable consumption needs to be factored into on-going academic and policy debates.     

THE EVOLUTION OF INDONESIAN HARD-MINERAL AGREEMENTS, 1967–1977

This article traces the evolution of contractual terms for hard minerals agreements in Indonesia over the period 1967–1977. It shows that, with some important exceptions, the Indonesian experience has been more or less consonant with that of other developing countries that are mineral exporters. Virtually everywhere, contract terms, particularly fiscal provisions, have been considerably tightened as host countries gained experience in negotiating and implementing hard mineral agreements. As a result, recent contracts involve measurably greater benefits for host countries than was generally the case in the 1960s. For a variety of reasons discussed in the article, the evolution to tighter contracts and more favourable terms was rapid in Indonesia. The article also demonstrates the essential equivalence between the two most prevalent forms of mineral agreements: the production-sharing contract and the contract of work. In particular, and contrary to widespread belief, the article shows, using Indonesian examples, that a contract of work can be made to match production-sharing agreements in its financial results. Le présent article retrace l'évolution des clauses contractuelles des accords sur les minéraux solides en Indonésie pour la période 1967–1977. Il montre que, à quelques exceptions importantes près, l'expérience faite par I'lndonésie dans ce domaine est fort proche de celle d'autres pays en développement exportateurs de minéraux. On assiste presque partout à un resserrement considerable des clauses contractuelles et, en particulier, des dispositions fiscales au moment où les pays hôtes acquièrent de l'experience en matière de négociations et d'exécution des accords sur les minéraux solides. En conséquence, les récents contracts ont apporté des bénéfices bien plus appréciables aux pays nôtes qu'ils ne l'ont fait généralement dans les années 60. Pour de multiples raisons exposées dans cet article, l'évolution de contrats plus stricts et de clauses plus favorables s'est avérée rapide en Indonésie. Cet article démontre également l'équivalence essentielle qui existe entre les deux formes les plus courantes d'accords sur les minéraux: des contrats de partage de la production et des contrats de travail. En particulier, et contrairement à ce que l'on pense généralement, cet article, par le biais d'exemples indonésiens, prouve qu'un contrat de travail peut s'harmoniser avec des accords de partage de la production quant à ses résultats financiers. Este artículo examina la evolución de los términos contractuales de los acuerdos sobre minerales en Indonesia durante el periodo 1967–1977. Este exámen muestra que, con algunas excepciones importantes, la experiencia de Indonesia ha sido similar a la de otros países en desarrollo exportadores de minerales. Casi en todas partes los términos contractuales, especialmente las provisiones fiscales, han tendido a ser restrictivas a medida que los países exportadores han ido adquiriendo experiencia en las negociaciones y ejecución de contratos sobre minerales. En consecuencia, los contratos recientes representan mejores beneficios para el país exportador en comparación a lo que sucedía en la década del sesenta. Debido a diferentes razones que se discuten en este artículo, la evolución hacia contratos más restrictivos y términos más favorables fué muy rápida en Indonesia. Este artículo también demuestra la equivalencia esencial entre las dos formas prevalentes de contratos sobre minerales: contratos de participación en la producción y contratos de trabajo. En especial, y contrariamente a la creencia general, el artículo muestra, usando el ejemplo de Indonesia, que el contrato de trabajo puede adecuarse de modo a obtener los mismos resultados financieros obtenibles con contratos de participación en la producción.     

Ethical Analysis of the Use of GM Fish: Emerging Issues for Aquaculture Development

Improvements in production methods over the last two decades have resulted in aquaculture becoming a significant contributor to food production in many countries. Increased efficiency and production levels are off-setting unsustainable capture fishing practices and contributing to food security, particularly in a number of developing countries. The challenge for the rapidly growing aquaculture industry is to develop and apply technologies that ensure sustainable production methods that will reduce environmental damage, increase productivity across the sector, and respect the diverse social and cultural dimensions of fish farming that are observed globally. The aquaculture industry currently faces a number of technology trajectories, which include the option to commercially produce genetically modified (GM) fish. The use of genetic modification in aquaculture has the potential to contribute to increased food security and is claimed to be the next logical step for the industry. However, the potential use of these technologies raises a number of important ethical questions. Using an ethical framework, the Ethical Matrix, this paper explores a number of the ethical issues potentially raised by the use of GM technologies in aquaculture. Several key issues have been identified. These include aspects of distributive justice for producers; use of a precautionary approach in the management of environmental risk and food safety; and impacts on the welfare and intrinsic value of the fish. There is a need to conduct a comparative analysis of the full economic cycle of the use of GM fish in aquaculture production for developing countries. There is also a need to initiate an informed dialogue between stakeholders and strenuous efforts should be made to ensure the participation of producers and their representatives from developing nations. An additional concern is that any national licensing of the first generation of GM fish, i.e., in the USA, may initiate and frame an assessment cycle, mediated by the WTO, which could dominate the conditions under which the technology will be applied and regulated globally. Therefore, an integrated analysis of the technology development trajectories, in terms of international policy, IPR, and operational implications, as well as an analysis of a broader range of ethical concerns, is needed.     

中日农村环境管理对比及对中国的启示

日本与我国在历史上同属传统的东亚小农经济国家,在社会、经济、文化等方面的发展历程和存在的问题具有共通性。日本的农村生态环境管理随社会经济发展不断调整适应,政府也数次推动乡村振兴。对比研究中日两国农村环境管理及其背后的社会经济因素,虽然两国在农村环境管理上有相似性,但也有较大不同,我国不能完全照搬日本的农村环境管理体制机制,必须走一条适应我国国情的特色道路,循序渐进推进农业农村污染防治。在开展农村环保工作的具体举措上,日本也有较多可借鉴之处:一是以完善的法规政策体系保障农村环境管理;二是以精准的财政补贴支撑农村环境管理;三是以科学的规划和技术标准体系服务农村环境管理;四是以规范的行业和市场服务体系推动农村环境管理;五是以亲民务实的环境宣传教育助力农村环境管理。     

典型发达国家适应气候变化资金机制及对中国的启示

气候变化是全人类面临的严峻挑战,我国受到气候变化的不利影响更为显著,加快采取雄心勃勃的适应气候变化行动显得尤为重要,但资金机制一直是我国适应进程中的主要障碍,亟须借鉴国际经验构建完善适应气候变化的资金机制。基于此,本文首先简要分析国际适应气候变化资金机制的基本情况,然后选取适应进程较为完善的美、英、德、日等典型发达国家,分别从适应政策体系、国内适应资金和国际援助资金等三个方面梳理总结各国适应气候变化资金机制,最后分析我国适应气候变化资金机制及存在的问题,并提出对我国适应气候变化资金机制的启示。研究发现,《联合国气候变化框架公约》及其气候变化国际谈判进程是各国推进适应气候变化资金机制的主要动因,发达国家重视适应政策的法制化,但政策力度和运行模式有所不同,公共部门是各国适应资金的主要来源,私人资金潜力尚待挖掘,国际气候援助注重减缓与适应并重,但援助力度有待加强。未来我国应从完善适应气候变化顶层设计、建立适应气候变化资金保障机制、提高适应气候援助力度、加强国际交流与合作等方面完善我国适应气候变化资金机制。     

试点碳市场配额有偿分配经验及对全国碳市场的借鉴意义分析

我国7省市碳排放权交易试点经过多年实践,积累了宝贵经验。在配额分配方面,多数试点在免费分配的基础上进行了配额有偿分配的探索,形成了各具特色的有偿分配实践。研究表明,试点碳市场配额有偿分配的经验对全国碳市场配额分配具有重要的参考借鉴意义。建议结合全国碳市场建设和发展实际以及配额分配实施方案的制定,科学合理设计有偿分配相关规则,并建立相应的监管机制。     

Inventories and maps: cognitive ways of framing the nature policies in Europe

Since the Earth Summit in Rio, declining biodiversity has become a subject of general concern for many countries. To counter these negative trends, government nature policies in Europe at least are now thought out primarily in terms of networks. They concern new areas outside nature reserves, new players and new management strategies. Consequently, these policies should themselves become the subject of new public debate. Our study concerns the analysis of the forms used to collect the data required to set up the European Union's Natura 2000 network and maps drawn as part of the Council of Europe's Pan-European Ecological Network strategy. The aim of this article, which takes the perspective developed by the sociology of science, will be to show how the forms and maps used in these new nature policies produce knowledge that precedes policy discussions to search for the best possible socio-political compromises. In other words, the knowledge that is collected in and by means of these documents, forms and maps offers a cognitive way of ‘framing’ the subsequent public debates. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

污染场地风险管控环境经济政策体系：国外经验与本土实践

快速城市化和工业化给我国带来了大量的场地污染问题,污染场地修复和风险管控成为国土资源可持续利用的重要领域,创新土壤污染防治经济政策,充分发挥市场调节作用是土壤污染防治的内在要求,是破解土壤生态环境问题、推进土壤污染防治管理转型的重要支撑。本文从经济政策的体系、投融资模式与机制等方面展开,对美国、德国、荷兰等发达国家的污染场地风险管控环境经济政策进行了梳理分析,总结其可借鉴的成功经验;介绍了我国污染场地风险管控环境经济政策实施现状,最终从完善调控体系、明晰权责归属、拓宽资金来源、规范资金运营、丰富投融资模式、探索费用效益分析机制等方面提出我国污染场地风险管控环境经济政策体系的改进建议。     

Environmental News in Argentina,Chile, Mexico and the Philippines

From an environmental perspective, the media have raised the level of environmental awareness and, rightly or wrongly, focused the attention of citizens on specific environmental issues. Public reaction to environmental news can filter back into the media and highlight specific policy issues. The importance of the media in this respect has gained strength, particularly in developing countries, where environmental problems have become legitimate concerns, and where access to 'official' information has been historically difficult. In general, newspapers have been found to be one of the most predominant sources of environmental information available to the public, particularly in developing countries. In this paper, we summarise, briefly analyse and compare the newspaper coverage of environmental issues in Argentina, Chile, Mexico and the Philippines. Among numerous other results, it appears that the coverage of environmental issues fell considerably over the period 1990-94 despite an increase in world-wide environmental awareness. Most news reports actions by the environmental agencies (warnings and rewards, etc.). In the Philippines, however, most environmental news reports investments in pollution abatement activities by the private sector. While citizens' complaints represent a small percentage of the coverage of environmental issues, closer examination reveals that such complaints, in the vast majority of cases, trigger governmental actions (warnings) and ultimately an improvement of firms' environmental performance (investment).     

Heterogeneous and unconventional coalitions around global food risks: integrating Brazil into the debates

Current debates about food-borne risks (GMOs and BSE) have not only deepened public concern about how food is produced on farms, processed in factories, and transported, stored and traded. More importantly, these debates have exposed a crisis related to central social issues, such as the role of science, politics and business corporations in the decision-making processes for determining which risks societies should, or are prepared to, assume. In this article, I discuss how cultural and social constructivist studies of environmental and health risks and Ulrich Beck's theory of world risk society can contribute to the analysis of how to deal with these conflicts. The criticism of quantitative methods of risk analysis has resulted in a certain idealization of the lay knowledge of risks as being intuitively more correct than the scientific one. One consequence of this polarization between expert and lay knowledge—idealizing the latter—is a disappointing vagueness when looking for alternatives on how to deal practically with risks that have important consequences. A key obstacle to the implementation of some of the suggestions presented by the critical risk analysis approach is that, for example, in the current global dynamics of food-borne risks we can find heterogeneous alliances for and against GMOs allying lay people and experts, as well as conventional and unconventional social actors, in a complicated manner, at the regional, national and international levels. Since a significant part of the analysis of manufactured risks focuses on the situation of highly industrialized countries, a more complex perspective of these lay and scientific alliances can be obtained from a more extensive study of the reactions surrounding GMOs and BSE in less-industrialized countries, such as Brazil. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

欧盟废物焚烧指令的研究与借鉴

为进一步完善我国废物焚烧标准体系,防控废物焚烧环境风险,本文对欧盟废物焚烧指令与我国焚烧标准体系进行了对比分析。欧盟废物焚烧指令分别对专用焚烧厂和协同焚烧厂从废物运输到处理处置全过程的污染物排放控制做出了相关规定,适用于危险废物和非危险废物的焚烧以及常规污染物和有毒污染物的控制。欧盟废物焚烧指令对不同规模的焚烧设施采用统一标准,以日均值和半小时均值为污染物排放限值,更客观、准确地评价了污染物排放对环境的影响。与欧盟废物焚烧指令相比,我国废物焚烧标准涉及废物联合利用处置的相关条文较少,内容不详,项目缺失。我国烟尘、HCl的排放限值均在欧盟标准限值6倍以上,SO2的排放限值是欧盟标准的4~8倍。除CO、NOx的排放限值外,其他污染物排放限值也明显高于欧盟标准限值。我国采用抽样监测方法,监测结果可能在日常排放值的95%置信区间外,不具备代表性。我国可借鉴欧盟废物焚烧指令的成果制定协同焚烧标准,并严格污染物排放限值,考虑采用日均值或半小时均值的评价方法,提高我国废物焚烧标准的精确性和可执行性。     

中国城镇居民食物消费碳排放的时空演变特征分析

本文运用碳折算系数法和投入产出模型测算了1990—2018年中国30个省(区、市)城镇居民食物消费的人均直接碳排放、人均家庭间接碳排放和人均产业间接碳排放,并运用探索性空间数据分析(ESDA)对总碳排放的空间特征进行分析。研究表明:1990—2018年中国30个省(区、市)人均间接碳排放在研究期内呈增长趋势,人均产业碳排放增长幅度最大且始终处于主导地位,大部分地区的人均直接碳排放增长较为缓慢;人均碳排放和总碳排放都呈显著增长趋势,人均碳排放的增长幅度宁夏>新疆>上海>浙江>青海>北京,甘肃最小,总碳排放增长幅度广东>浙江>山东>江苏>河北>上海,吉林最低;总碳排放在大部分年份呈正的空间相关性,整体上呈"M"形波动;局部空间自相关分析结果表明,食物消费总碳排放存在高高型和低高型两种,且2000年及以后高高型稳定在上海、江苏、浙江地区。最后,本文依据实证结果对如何降低城镇居民食物消费碳排放提出了相应的政策建议。     

Politicisation and professional expertise in the policy of nature conservation

In this paper, the policy of nature conservation in Norway is analysed, with a particular focus on policy development during the last decade moving in the direction of multi-level governance. It is argued that the logic of policy making has shifted from what can be described as 'the politics of expertise' to a process of 'politicisation'. A process of politicisation can be observed both in terms of the nature of arguments being used, and in terms of who the dominant actors are. The subjects of analysis are issues taken up by the political parties in the Parliament, and the paper focuses on two controversial questions. One is about the localisation of conservation areas on private land and the state's liability for compensation. The other is the question of whether the management of conservation areas, and in particular national parks, should be under the control of local government or the state environmental bureaucracy. The analysis documents a process moving in the direction of more complex governance structure involving more actors and broader local participation challenging the role of the professional bureaucracy.     

Utilization of Subsurface Space in Developing Countries

This paper summarizes the subject matter covered at the United Nations Interregional Workshop on the Utilization of Subsurface Space convened in Stockholm, Sweden, 24–29 October 1982. The utilization of subsurface space has largely been confined to developed countries so far, and the purpose of the meeting was to focus attention upon its potential use in developing countries. Participants at the Workshop discussed the utilization of subsurface space in relation to the underground storage of food and commodities, water, petroleum and gas, and also energy production and utilization. Additional topics included transportation systems and public utilities. The implementation of such projects is discussed with respect to technology and technology transfer and to the economics of subsurface development. As capital, in particular, is a limited resource in developing countries, attention was devoted to the financing of such undertakings. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the conclusions reached with specific attention to the possible role of United Nations organizations in this increasingly important area. Cet article résume le sujet traité par le Groupe de travail interrégional des Nations Unies sur l'utilisation de l'espace souterrain qui s'est tenu à Stockholm, en Suède, du 24 au 29 octobre 1982. Ce n'est que dans les pays industriels qu'on a jusqu'à présent largement utilisé l'espace souterrain et le but de ce Groupe de travail a été d'attirer l'attention sur le potentiel qu'il représente dans les pays en développement. Les participants ont discuté de l'utilisation de l'espace souterrain dans le cadre du stockage d'aliments et de biens de consommation, de l'eau, du petrole et du gaz, et aussi de la production et l'utilisation de l'énergie. Ils ont également discuté d'autres sujets, tels que les transports souterrains et l'enfouissement des structures industrielles. De plus, l'article traite de la mise en oeuvre de ces projets en ce qui concerne leur technologie et les transferts de technologie ainsi que des aspects économiques de la mise en valeur de l'espace souterrain. Les ressources financières étant, en particulier, limitées dans les pays en développement, le Groupe de travail s'est attaché au mode de financement de telles entreprises. L'article se termine par une brève discussion des conclusions auxquelles sont parvenus les participants en étudiant le rôle possible des organismes des Nations Unies dans ce domaine dont l'importance s'accroît. Este articulo resume el tema tratado en el Seminario Interregional de las Naciones Unidas sobre la utilización del Espacio en Subsuelo que tuvo lugar en Estocolmo, Suecia, del 24 al 29 de octubre de 1982. El espacio en subsuelo ha sido mayormente utilizado sólo por los países en desarrollo por lo cual el propósito de la reunión fue enfocado al caso de los países en desarrollo. Los participantes en la reunión discutieron la utilización del espacio en subsuelo con relación al almacenamiento de alimentos y otros bienes, agua, petróleo y gas y tambien en relación con la producción y utilización de energía. Tópicos adicionales incluyeron los sistemas de transporte y servicio público. La ejécución de tales proyectos se discuten con respecto a la tecnología del desarrollo del subsuelo. Debido a que el capital es la particular en recurso limitado en los países en desarrollo, se dió atención al financiamiento de tales proyectos. El artículo termina con una discusión breve de las conclusiones de la reunión, en especial, aquellos que se refieron al posible rol de las organizaciones de las Naciones Unidas en este área de importancia creciente.     

Robust optimization evaluation of reliance on locally produced foods

While local food production may be beneficial in terms of developing the local economy and reducing greenhouse gases from transportation, sustainability strategies focused on local food production may generate their own risks due to yield variability. We have developed a robust optimization (RO) model to determine the minimum amount of land (cropland and pasture) required to grow food items that would satisfy a local population’s (accounting for gender and age) calorie and nutrient needs. This model has been applied to Boone County, Missouri, which has a population of approximately 170,000. Boone County is 1790 km², with 16% of the land defined as cropland and 30% defined as pasture. The model includes 27 nutrients from 17 potential foods that could be produced: six fruits and vegetables, five grains and six animal-sourced foods. Yield estimates are based on the predominate methods of agriculture in the USA. We first run our model assuming no variability, using the midpoint yield estimates. Then, to quantify uncertainty in yield for different food types, we use historical yield data over 10 years to estimate this variability and run our RO model under these variability estimates. We compare the two model results to illustrate the impact of data uncertainty on meeting sustainable local food for communities. Solutions suggest that nutrition needs can be met for the Boone County population within the land area defined.     

RECENT COAL AND URANIUM INVESTMENT AGREEMENTS IN THE THIRD WORLD

The improvements made by developing countries in the 1970s in petroleum and mineral agreements with transnational corporations have been well documented, and substantial evidence exists to show that some real gains, in terms of host country control over operations, distribution of economic benefits, better employment and training requirements, etc., have in fact been made. In the case of the energy-related minerals, uranium and coal, however, relatively few contracts between Third World governments and transnational corporations have become public, and it is thus difficult to document whether the same gains made in the case of petroleum or non-fuel minerals have been achieved in relation to these energy resources. This article reviews a number of such recent coal and uranium agreements in developing countries. In overall terms, these agreements do not go as far in providing for the interests of host countries as do those negotiated for petroleum or hard minerals. The reasons for this apparent weakness in developing countries' bargaining power in the case of uranium and coal include the specific nature of the markets for these minerals, the structure of transnational corporations in the industry, and the very secrecy which has kept most of these contracts from public view. In the light of the relatively weak markets expected for export sales of coal and uranium through the remainder of the 1980s, it appears unlikey that developing countries can make significant advances in their negotiations to the extent of achieving terms which are more favourable than those contained in the best of the agreements reviewed in this article. It should, however, be possible for host governments to use the more favourable of the agreements reviewed here as standards for future negotiations. Une solide documentation existe sur les améliorations apportées par les pays en développement dans les années '70 dans le domaine des accords pétroliers et miniers avec les sociétés multinationales et il est maintenant bien etabli que des gains réels ont été acquis en ce qui concerne le contrôle des opérations par le pays hôte, la répartition des bénéfices, une meilleure utilisation de la main-d'oeuvre et les obligations de formation professionnelle. Cependant, dans le cas des minerais énergétiques uranium et charbon, relativement très peu de contrats intervenus entre les gouvernements du Tiers Monde et les sociétés multinationales sont tombés dans le domaine public de sorte qu'il est difficile d'établir si des gains semblables à ceux réalisés dans le cadre du pétrole et des minerais métalliques ont été obtenus. Cet article passe en revue certains des accords intervenus récemment dans les domaines du charbon et de l'uranium dans les pays en développement. En termes généraux, ces accords ne vont pas aussi loin dans la protection des intérêts des pays hôtes que ceux qui ont été négociés pour le pétrole et les minerais. La marge de manoeuvre des pays en développement dans le cadre des négociations d'accords portant sur le charbon et l'uranium est limitée en apparence du fait de la nature particulière des marchés de ces minerais, de la place qu'occupent les sociétés multinationales dans l'industrie minière et du caractère confidentiel qui entoure les transactions et les isole de la vue du grand public. Etant donné les tendances baissières des marchés du charbon et de l'uranium à l'exportation pour le reste de cette décennie, il semble peu probable que les pays en développement puissent réaliser des progrès sensibles dans leurs négociations pour atteindre des conditions plus favorables que celles qui figurent dans les meilleurs accords examinés dans cet article. Cependant, les pays hôtes devraient se prévaloir des accords qui leur sont les plus favorables parmi ceux qui sont passés en revue pour les utiliser comme base de leurs futures négociations et tout au moins pour éviter de signer des accords léonins. Los progresos alcanzados en la década del setenta por los países en desar-rollo en los acuerdos con las compañias transnacionales sobre el desarrollo del petróleo y de los minerales ha sido bien documentado y existe evidencia sustantiva de que ha habido ganancias reales en aspectos tales como control del país sobre las operaciones, distribución de beneficios económicos, mejores condiciones para el empleo y el entrenamiento, etc. Sin embargo, en el caso de minerales energéticos, tales como el uranio y el carbón, pocos contratos han sido hechos públicos y es difícil documentar si se tuvieron similares ganancias como en el caso de minerales no energéticos y petróleo. Este artículo pasa revista a un número de dichos contratos recientes sobre carbón y uranio. En términos generales estos contratos no son tan favorables a los países en desarrollo en comparación con los contratos para petróleo y minerales no energéticos. Las razones para esta aparente debilidad del poder de negociación en el caso del carbón y del uranio se debe, entre otras, a la naturaleza específica del mercado para estos minerales, la estruc-tura de las compañías transnacionales dentro de la indústria y el carácter secreto que ha tenido la mayoría de estos contratos con respecto al público en general. A la luz de la relativa debilidad del mercado para las exportaciones de carbón y uranio que se cree que imperará durante el resto de la década del ochenta, parece poco probable que los países en desarrollo puedan hacer avances significativos en sus negociaciones con el objeto de alcanzar términos que sean más favorables que los que se alcanzaron en el mejor de los contratos revisados en el presente artículo. Debería ser posible, sin embargo, que los gobiernos puedan usar como patrón para futuras negociaciones el contrato mas favorable revisado en este artículo y evitar la firma de acuerdos totalmente desfavorables al pais.     

韩国绿色种养循环农业发展概况与经验启示

联合国将碳中和视为当今世界最为紧迫的任务,而农业是温室气体排放最多的产业之一,各国相继出台政策积极开展农业农村减排工作。韩国自2012年开始逐渐减少海洋粪污排泄量,并大力实行绿色种养循环农业,解决本国内畜禽粪污问题。韩国作为中国的重要海上邻国,不论是从研究借鉴角度抑或生态系统共享角度,了解其环境保护政策都是十分必要的。本文从韩国实施的主要政策、各地区农地养分收支现状、代表性运营模式案例、政策关注焦点等方面介绍韩国绿色种养循环农业的发展概况,结合中国绿色种养循环农业现状开展研究。提出三点政策建议：第一,进一步完善畜禽粪污资源化利用机具补贴辅助管理系统,提高系统在农户中的普及率;第二,提高全民环保意识的同时,政府的角色不应局限自上而下的引导型,应该积极促进种植户和养殖户间的自发组织,并大力提倡吸纳社会资本,集结社会各方力量;第三,促进绿色种养循环农业产品的商品化和品牌化,从而调动农户参与绿色种养循环农业的积极性。