A conceptual model of the role of complex science in local authority consultations about air quality management

There exists a clear imperative across the EU and within the UK towards the enhanced integration of community knowledge in environmental and health decision-making processes. The underlying social force that underpins this dynamic is the drive for a more accountable, transparent and publicly acceptable decision-making arena. However, relatively little research has been undertaken on the evaluation of local air quality management consultation in particular. In this context, the paper presents an evaluation of evidence resulting from questionnaire survey and case study research undertaken in the first round of the statutory process of local air quality management (LAQM), in which local authorities are required to consult on their air quality findings and intentions. We suggest that local authority perceptions of the relative abilities of differing stakeholders' grasp of air quality science, the process that translates that science into policy, and the institutional and organizational status of stakeholders (i.e. whether they are statutory or non-statutory stakeholders) may tend to transitively determine the choice of consultation methods used, the communication strategies chosen and the relative integration of stakeholder feedback into the LAQM decision-making process. In order to interrogate this potentially problematic chain of risk communication events, a preliminary conceptual model has been developed to enable the interrogation of the pathways through, and the obstacles to, the translation of air quality knowledge. The task is to unveil the sequential chains of association that comprise the LAQM risk communication process.     

Enhancing consultation practices on Air Quality Management in local authorities

Schedule 11 of the Environment Act 1995 underpins the requirement for consultation on air quality issues. The ongoing air quality review and assessment process represents one of the largest locally based science policy and communication initiatives ever undertaken in the UK. This paper outlines the practice of consultation and communication for Air Quality Management (AQM) and reviews the interaction between Environmental Health professionals, as the leading actor in the AQM process and other stakeholders involved in air quality consultation, including the public. Results are presented from a widespread questionnaire survey of English local authorities. Data indicate that the majority of air quality consultation has been carried out with statutory consultees (by sending the review and assessment reports) and the public (via websites and leaflets) in the form of information dissemination.     

A longitudinal study of the links between Local Air Quality Management and Local Transport Planning policy processes in England

The second round of the Local Transport Plan (LTP2) process in England presents unique challenges and opportunities for integrating Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) within current transport planning policy. Using content analysis of LTP2 documents from nine English authorities, and results from a questionnaire survey of local government officers undertaken in late 2007, this paper charts the changes in the integration of air quality management within the transport planning process since 1997. While substantial improvements in policy integration were observed within the selected case studies, the paper demonstrates that such improvements are often constrained by institutional complexities that create implementation gaps between national objectives and local decision-making outcomes.     

Regional Variations in the Implementation of the Local Air Quality Management Process within Great Britain

The UK National Air Quality Strategy has required local authorities to review and assess air quality in their area of jurisdiction and determine locations in their areas where concentrations of specific air quality pollutants are predicted to exceed national air quality objectives in the future. Statutory air quality management areas (AQMAs) are designated where air quality is predicted to be above specified objective concentrations by specific target dates, and statutory air quality action plans will be necessary to improve the local air quality within these areas. Over 124 local authorities in England (including London), Wales and Scotland anticipate declaring AQMAs following the conclusion of the statutory air quality review and assessment process. However, other influences are being exerted on the local air quality management process and AQMA decision-making processes. Such influences include regional and sub- regional collaborative working between local authorities and government agencies and wider political decision-making processes. Some regions of Great Britain (encompassing England (including London), Scotland and Wales) anticipate many AQMA designations, whilst other regions are not anticipating any such designations despite apparently similar air quality circumstances. Evidence for regional or sub-regional variations in the locations of anticipated AQMAs are examined through an evaluation of the outcomes of the scientific review and assessment process undertaken by local authorities declaring AQMAs, and through a local authority survey to identify influences on decision-making processes at a level above that of the local authority. Regional variation is reported in the type of pollutant causing AQMAs to be declared, in the numbers of AQMAs in regions and in the spatial distribution of AQMAs across Great Britain.     

Judging the Risk of Exceedance: Local authority decision-making for air quality management area designation

Management of air quality by local government in the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) requires a process of local decision-making, involving collaboration between local politicians, authority officers and interest-groups. Since the establishment of the first National Air Quality Strategy for the UK in 1997, local authority environmental health professionals have undertaken a scientific review and assessment process to identify locations where predicted future pollutant concentrations may exceed national air quality objectives. Air quality management areas (AQMAs) are declared where such exceedences are predicted. Over recent years, significant changes in local authority decision-making structures in England, Scotland and Wales have occurred, resulting in changes to the structure and governance in many local authorities. Results are presented from local authority surveys undertaken to examine the occurrence of any conflicts between the science involved in predicting exceedences and the local political decision-making processes in declaring AQMAs. Data are presented for a sample set of local authorities in Great Britain from which it is concluded that decision-making structures in local government are having a demonstrable impact on the designation of AQMAs.     

Progress with implementing local air-quality management in rural areas of England

Air quality in the UK, although vastly improved from the smogs of the 1950s, now faces a new set of challenges from a variety of sources and pollutants. Poor air quality has long been associated with urban areas, but it is becoming clear that many rural locations also have locations likely to exceed the UK Air Quality Strategy-objectives: This paper will examine the extent to which rural authorities have been engaged in the local air-quality management (LAQM) process, a new regime by which air quality control is being accomplished in the UK. Results are presented from a questionnaire survey of environmental health officers of 100 rural authorities undertaken in January 1999. The paper investigates both the technical aspects of the LAQM process as well as the management approaches. The current progress of rural authorities, and some of the problems they face, are discussed particularly in comparison with urban areas. It is concluded that some rural authorities with air pollution problems stemming either from within or outwith their borough, may face significant challenges from the LAQM review and assessment process, particularly where air pollution responsibilities have only relatively recently been addressed. Rural authorities seem to be embracing these new responsibilities enthusiastically, but it is almost inevitable that they will be trailing behind urban authorities who have several decades of experience and joint working to draw upon.     

Judging the Risk of Exceedance: local authority decision-making for air quality management area designation

Management of air quality by local government in the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) requires a process of local decision-making, involving collaboration between local politicians, authority officers and interest-groups. Since the establishment of the first National Air Quality Strategy for the UK in 1997, local authority environmental health professionals have undertaken a scientific review and assessment process to identify locations where predicted future pollutant concentrations may exceed national air quality objectives. Air quality management areas (AQMAs) are declared where such exceedences are predicted. Over recent years, significant changes in local authority decision-making structures in England, Scotland and Wales have occurred, resulting in changes to the structure and governance in many local authorities. Results are presented from local authority surveys undertaken to examine the occurrence of any conflicts between the science involved in predicting exceedences and the local political decision-making processes in declaring AQMAs. Data are presented for a sample set of local authorities in Great Britain from which it is concluded that decision-making structures in local government are having a demonstrable impact on the designation of AQMAs.     

Risk discourses and governance of high-level radioactive waste storage in Taiwan

Policy scholars have indicated that the quality of the solution to a perceived social problem depends on the adequacy of its framing. This paper examines how policy stakeholders and local residents frame the issue of the radioactive waste storage facility in Taiwan, the limits of institutional mechanisms in decision-making processes, and the implications of the deliberative forums undertaken by the national Stop Nukes Now organisation. The controversy illustrates the problems of a knowledge gap and the top-down procedures as well as the challenges that Taiwan faces in becoming a nuclear-free country. This case demonstrates civic society organisations’ efforts to challenge the ‘social–technical divide’ and technical experts’ prior definition of the ‘problems’ and selection of a ‘solution’. Deliberative forums enable the participation of affected communities to shape public discourses, which helps to strengthen public communication, improves citizen consciousness of nuclear waste issues, and attempts to link wider communities and public interests.     

Integrating Science into Management of Ecosystems in the Greater Blue Mountains

Effective management of large protected conservation areas is challenged by political, institutional and environmental complexity and inconsistency. Knowledge generation and its uptake into management are crucial to address these challenges. We reflect on practice at the interface between science and management of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (GBMWHA), which covers approximately 1 million hectares west of Sydney, Australia. Multiple government agencies and other stakeholders are involved in its management, and decision-making is confounded by numerous plans of management and competing values and goals, reflecting the different objectives and responsibilities of stakeholders. To highlight the complexities of the decision-making process for this large area, we draw on the outcomes of a recent collaborative research project and focus on fire regimes and wild-dog control as examples of how existing knowledge is integrated into management. The collaborative research project achieved the objectives of collating and synthesizing biological data for the region; however, transfer of the project’s outcomes to management has proved problematic. Reasons attributed to this include lack of clearly defined management objectives to guide research directions and uptake, and scientific information not being made more understandable and accessible. A key role of a local bridging organisation (e.g., the Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute) in linking science and management is ensuring that research results with management significance can be effectively transmitted to agencies and that outcomes are explained for nonspecialists as well as more widely distributed. We conclude that improved links between science, policy, and management within an adaptive learning-by-doing framework for the GBMWHA would assist the usefulness and uptake of future research.     

Improving road transport-related air quality in England through joint working between Environmental Health Officers and Transport Planners

In this paper the necessity for effective joint working arrangements between Environmental Health Officers and Transport Planners is demonstrated as a fundamental prerequisite for successful management of traffic-related air quality in English local government areas. Current approach to joint working and collaboration between the officers was examined based on the evidence from a three-year study which involved questionnaire surveys and case study interviews. The findings show that despite good administrative devolution and policy integration, the chance of improving specific local air quality situations through the Local Transport Planning process is dependent on other overriding factors which influence the capabilities of the authorities to integrate policies across departments and tiers of governments. Implicit in these findings is the need for a shared paradigm of continuous engagement by all the policy actors and stakeholders if proper integration and the possibility of tangible results in future policy development are to be achieved. The paper proposes a new framework through which such collaborations can be developed and within which solutions to the issues identified can be evaluated.     

Science in the public process of ecosystem management: lessons from Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US Mainland

Partnerships and co-operative environmental management are increasing worldwide as is the call for scientific input in the public process of ecosystem management. In Hawaii, private landowners, non-governmental organizations, and state and federal agencies have formed watershed partnerships to conserve and better manage upland forested watersheds. In this paper, findings of an international workshop convened in Hawaii to explore the strengths of approaches used to assess stakeholder values of environmental resources and foster consensus in the public process of ecosystem management are presented. Authors draw upon field experience in projects throughout Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US mainland to derive a set of lessons learned that can be applied to Hawaiian and other watershed partnerships in an effort to promote consensus and sustainable ecosystem management. Interdisciplinary science-based models can serve as effective tools to identify areas of potential consensus in the process of ecosystem management. Effective integration of scientific input in co-operative ecosystem management depends on the role of science, the stakeholders and decision-makers involved, and the common language utilized to compare tradeoffs. Trust is essential to consensus building and the integration of scientific input must be transparent and inclusive of public feedback. Consideration of all relevant stakeholders and the actual benefits and costs of management activities to each stakeholder is essential. Perceptions and intuitive responses of people can be as influential as analytical processes in decision-making and must be addressed. Deliberative, dynamic and iterative decision-making processes all influence the level of stakeholder achievement of consensus. In Hawaii, application of lessons learned can promote more informed and democratic decision processes, quality scientific analysis that is relevant, and legitimacy and public acceptance of ecosystem management.     

The Decision Analysis Interview Approach in the Collaborative Management of a Large Regulated Water Course

There are always conflicting goals in the management of large water courses. However, by involving stakeholders actively in the planning and decision-making processes, it is possible to work together toward commonly acceptable solutions. In this article, we describe how we applied interactive multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) in a collaborative process which aimed at an ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable water course regulation policy. The stakeholders' opinions about the alternative regulation schemes and the relative importance of their impacts were elicited with the HIPRE software. Altogether, 20 personal interactive decision analysis interviews (DAIs) were carried out with the stakeholders. Our experience suggests that the DAIs can considerably improve the quality and efficiency of the collaborative planning process. By improving communication and understanding of the decision situation in the steering group, the approach helped to develop a consensus solution in a case having strong conflicts of interest. In order to gain the full benefits of the MCDA approach, interactive preference elicitation is vital. It is also essential to integrate the approach tightly into the planning and decision-making process. The project's home pages are available to the public at http://www.paijanne.hut.fi/.     

Participatory GIS and its application in governance: the example of air quality and the implications for noise pollution

Abstract

Participatory GIS (geographic information systems) is designed to use community mapping exercises to produce spatial representations of local knowledge. The ideals of Participatory GIS revolve around the concept of public participation in the use of spatial data leading to increased community involvement in policy-setting and decision-making (Weiner et al., Community participation and geographic information systems, in: Craig et al., Community participation and geographic information systems, London: Taylor & Francis, 2002). This paper reports on findings from two case studies, one relating to assessments of air quality and how Participatory GIS has been used in the UK to improve local government policy, and the second on assessments of noise pollution. It concludes by discussing a caveat on the use of Participatory GIS for environmental governance, which is that, ideally, only issues on which participants are likely to have direct experiential knowledge should be targeted.     

Participatory Evaluation of Monitoring and Modeling of Sustainable Land Management Technologies in Areas Prone to Land Degradation

Examples of sustainable land management (SLM) exist throughout the world. In many cases, SLM has largely evolved through local traditional practices and incremental experimentation rather than being adopted on the basis of scientific evidence. This means that SLM technologies are often only adopted across small areas. The DESIRE (DESertIfication mitigation and REmediation of degraded land) project combined local traditional knowledge on SLM with empirical evaluation of SLM technologies. The purpose of this was to evaluate and select options for dissemination in 16 sites across 12 countries. It involved (i) an initial workshop to evaluate stakeholder priorities (reported elsewhere), (ii) field trials/empirical modeling, and then, (iii) further stakeholder evaluation workshops. This paper focuses on workshops in which stakeholders evaluated the performance of SLM technologies based on the scientific monitoring and modeling results from 15 study sites. It analyses workshop outcomes to evaluate how scientific results affected stakeholders’ perceptions of local SLM technologies. It also assessed the potential of this participatory approach in facilitating wider acceptance and implementation of SLM. In several sites, stakeholder preferences for SLM technologies changed as a consequence of empirical measurements and modeling assessments of each technology. Two workshop examples are presented in depth to: (a) explore the scientific results that triggered stakeholders to change their views; and (b) discuss stakeholders’ suggestions on how the adoption of SLM technologies could be up-scaled. The overall multi-stakeholder participatory approach taken is then evaluated. It is concluded that to facilitate broad-scale adoption of SLM technologies, de-contextualized, scientific generalisations must be given local context; scientific findings must be viewed alongside traditional beliefs and both scrutinized with equal rigor; and the knowledge of all kinds of experts must be recognised and considered in decision-making about SLM, whether it has been formally codified or not. The approach presented in this paper provided this opportunity and received positive feedback from stakeholders.     

Mediating an invisible policy problem: Nottingham’s rejection of congestion charging

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a qualitative case study of community participation in local air quality management in Nottingham (UK). We analyse Nottingham’s response to a “clean air zone” mandate: despite national government and local community support of this congestion charging policy, the City Council rejected the measure. We focus on the policy framing, with data from policy documents, interviews with government and non-government actors, and observation in local activities. We found that community groups build links with local government in two ways: (1) as a coalition against the national government and austerity measures, and (2) as “neutral”, non-expert communicators of air pollution as an “invisible” policy problem. We show how this invisibility plays a significant role in factors such as trust, risk, responsibility, and policy communication. This research has theoretical implications for the communication of air pollution and practical implications for cities looking to implement similar transport-oriented strategies.     

Air Quality Management in UK Local Authorities: Public Understanding and Participation

Science and technology are an integral part of informing public policy on air pollution and transport management. Expectations of science and technology by society and their use by air quality policy makers has led to increasing reliance upon this evidence to promote health and well-being. This can be seen, for example, in the setting of the UK national objectives for air pollutants based on exposure and health effects. This paper addresses three questions. It assesses, through the use of focus groups, the public perceptions of air pollution and the atmospheric dispersion model output from the Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System-Urban. Then it assesses their understanding of this information and its current presentation to the layperson. Finally, it assesses how their perceptions and understanding influence their solutions to local air quality management in the London Borough of Camden. The results show that participants in the study struggled with the concept of air pollution outside their sphere of experience, and they did not understand the scientific basis or modelling used to inform local policy. This is partly a result of the way this information is presented. They did not relate the technological evidence to their opinions of acceptable solutions or they expressed reluctance to suggest specific options. It is proposed that a well-informed public would make comprehensive decisions on air quality based upon a broader range of factors, incorporating the scientific reasoning and technological information as well as emotive and socio-economic factors. A balance between science and technological understanding with the validity of local expertise will improve air quality policy making to the greater satisfaction of all stakeholders.     

The SoftGIS approach to local knowledge

The aim of the SoftGIS approach is to support urban planning processes and decision-making. SoftGIS aims to present a more comprehensive understanding of local knowledge. This is realized by the mapping of local knowledge and its integration into urban planning practices. SoftGIS is a multidisciplinary approach where different Internet- and GIS-based methods are developed to gather and process local knowledge. In this article we present the theoretical background to the SoftGIS approach as well as two case studies.     

Identifying the Institutional Decision Process to Introduce Decentralized Sanitation in the City of Kunming (China)

We conducted a study of the institutional barriers to introducing urine source separation in the urban area of Kunming, China. On the basis of a stakeholder analysis, we constructed stakeholder diagrams showing the relative importance of decision-making power and (positive) interest in the topic. A hypothetical decision-making process for the urban case was derived based on a successful pilot project in a periurban area. All our results were evaluated by the stakeholders. We concluded that although a number of primary stakeholders have a large interest in testing urine source separation also in an urban context, most of the key stakeholders would be reluctant to this idea. However, the success in the periurban area showed that even a single, well-received pilot project can trigger the process of broad dissemination of new technologies. Whereas the institutional setting for such a pilot project is favorable in Kunming, a major challenge will be to adapt the technology to the demands of an urban population. Methodologically, we developed an approach to corroborate a stakeholder analysis with the perception of the stakeholders themselves. This is important not only in order to validate the analysis but also to bridge the theoretical gap between stakeholder analysis and stakeholder involvement. We also show that in disagreement with the assumption of most policy theories, local stakeholders consider informal decision pathways to be of great importance in actual policy-making.     

Evaluating consistency of stakeholder input into participatory GIS-based multiple criteria evaluation: a case study of ecotourism development in Kurdistan

Multiple criteria evaluation (MCE) is often used with GIS to identify suitable sites for multi-purpose development such as ecotourism. Typically, expert or stakeholder consultation is used to identify weights reflecting the relative importance of map layers representing different criteria. The objective of this study was to evaluate a new consultative approach to GIS-based MCE, using ecotourism development in Kurdistan, Iraq, as a case study. In an initial and follow-up consultation, stakeholders were asked not only to assess the relative importance of different map layers for ecotourism development, but also to identify specific sites suitable for ecotourism. Seventy-eight ecotourism destinations nominated by participants had significantly higher MCE scores than a set of 58 locations chosen without reference to stakeholders (t-test = 21.16; p < 0.001). The approach thus provides a straightforward means of assessing the consistency of stakeholder input into MCE and could be adapted for use in other site suitability assessments.     

Joint Working within Local Government: Air quality as a case-study

Air quality management (AQM) is a process of environmental control that must be embedded within a wide range of policy areas, from local-scale initiatives to international treaties, if it is to be successful. Because of the integrative aspects of AQM, it is imperative that joint working is undertaken within local authorities and other involved parties. Environmental health departments have taken the lead role in AQM as they have traditionally had responsibilities for some other aspects of pollution control. However, AQM requires input from a variety of professionals such as transport planners, land-use planners, economic development officers and Local Agenda 21 (LA21) officers, as well as environmental health professionals. This paper examines the involvement of these professions within the AQM process. Results are presented from a widespread questionnaire survey of urban local authorities in England. In the case of air quality, it is concluded that co-operation between the necessary professions is still at an early stage. Transport planners are more fully engaged with the process than are land-use planners or economic development officers. In order that the joint working process develops appropriately, it is suggested that LA21 officers have an important role in facilitating inter-professional working to support the AQM process.