Sustainable development in the Baltic sea region. Governance beyond the nation state

After the end of the Cold War, the Baltic Sea Region (BSR) developed into a highly dynamic area of cross-border cooperation and transnational networking. Three forms of governance beyond the nation state and appropriate case studies are presented here: (1) the Helsinki Convention as an international regime; (2) Baltic 21, the world's first regional Agenda 21, as an international policy network; (3) the Union of the Baltic Cities (UBC) as a transnational network. The achievement of sustainable development in the BSR undoubtedly requires a fruitful combination of national governance and these forms of international and transnational governance. In this respect, international policy networks, such as Baltic 21, and transnational networks, such as the UBC, promise to provide new approaches that can complement international and intergovernmental cooperation between nation states. Furthermore, it must also be taken into account that governance in the BSR will soon become embedded in European governance and lead to the Europeanisation of the Baltic Sea Area.     

Sustainable development in the Mediterranean region

Considering its specific economic, social, environmental and political features, the status and evolution of the Mediterranean have always been of great interest to its countries and concerned partners. From the protection of the sea against pollution, the interest was progressively expanded to land based development and its impacts on environment, to coastal management and finally to sustainable development with the establishment of the Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development (MCSD). Cumulated knowledge, coupled with political support and commitment to a common vision, has prepared the ground for the preparation of a regional strategy for sustainable development. Its preparatory process, coordinated by the MCSD Secretariat, has been very interactive, involving various stakeholders. The strategy, adopted in 2005, has raised awareness and induced the preparation of national sustainable development strategies.     

Energy economy of salmon aquaculture in the Baltic sea

Resource utilization in Atlantic salmon aquaculture in the Baltic Sea was investigated by means of an energy analysis. A comparison was made between cage farming and sea ranching enterprises each with yearly yields of 40 t of Atlantic salmon. A variety of sea ranching options were evaluated, including (a) conventional ranching, (b) ranching employing a delayed release to the sea of young smolts, (c) harvesting salmon both by offshore fishing fleets and as they return to coastal areas, and (d) when offshore fishing is banned, harvesting salmon only as they return to coastal areas where released. Inputs both from natural ecosystems (i.e., fish consumed by ranched salmon while in the sea and raw materials used for producing dry food pellets) and from the economy (i.e., fossil fuels and energy embodied in economic goods and services) were quantified in tonnes for food energy and as direct plus indirect energy cost (embodied energy). The fixed solar energy (estimated as primary production) and the direct and indirect auxiliary energy requirements per unit of fish output were expressed in similar units. Similar quantities of living resources in tonnes per unit of salmon biomass output are required whether the salmon are feeding in the sea or are caged farmed. Cage farming is about 10 times more dependent on auxiliary energies than sea ranching. Sea ranching applying delayed release of smolts is 35–45% more efficient in the use of auxiliary energies than conventional sea ranching and cage farming. Restriction of offshore fishing would make sea ranching 3 to 6.5 times more efficient than cage farming. The fixed solar energy input to Atlantic salmon aquaculture is 4 to 63 times larger than the inputs of auxiliary energy. Thus, cage farming and sea ranching are both heavily dependent on the productivity of natural ecosystems. It is concluded that sustainable development of the aquaculture industry must be founded on ecologically integrated technologies which utilize the free production in marine ecosystems without exhausting or damaging the marine environment.     

Sustainable development in Asia: the current state and policy options

Over the past decades, many Asian economies have achieved striking levels of economic growth. This economic growth has been necessary in order to fulfil the material needs and aspirations of growing populations. However, it has also been accompanied by substantial environmental degradation. While the precise interactions between economic growth, economic development and environmental degradation is subject to controversy and a comprehensive assessment of the Asian environment may be required to fully understand this relationship and the present conditions of the environment, it is argued in this paper that the achievement of sustainable economic development and the harmonizing of economic and environmental objectives will not be possible without deliberate policy interventions. Such policies need to incorporate a regional dimension in the form of institution building, in parallel to the concept of regional economic growth. The article focuses on the current problems of environmental and natural resource degradation in Asia, within a possible conceptual framework of impoverishing or unsustainable economic growth, and suggests a set of policies that need to be adopted in order to solve current difficulties.     

Sustainable supply chains—minerals and sustainable development,going beyond the mine

If the minerals and metals sector is to contribute successfully to sustainable development, it must adopt principles and practices which address the entire life cycle of the materials it creates. This paper examines how the social and environmental sustainability performance of products influences the sustainability agenda of the mining and metals sector. It illustrates how access to markets drives improvements in sustainability. It also considers how the sustainability of metal and non-metal products are using lifecycle approaches and outlines the importance of using appropriate tools for metals.     

Sustainable development in the Spanish region of Valencia and the social responsibility of SMEs. A multi-stakeholder vision on the role of public administrations

The complexity associated with the public and private management of sustainable development is causing the increasing involvement of various European Union governments in issues related to the social responsibility of organisations. However, the debate about the nature of this involvement is still open. The study here shows the results of a survey conducted in the Spanish region of Valencia among businesses and social agents, paying special attention to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). The outcomes of the interviews display the nascent state of CSR implementation both in the companies of the region and the government initiatives related to encouraging the development of the concept.     

Strategic Connectivity,Sustainable Development and the New English Regional Governance

This paper examines the institutional impacts of the new English regional sustainability framework and highlights the tension between the need for regional involvement and the central desire to control the debates and intentions of the regional actors. The paper argues that the regional sustainable development frameworks have been worth writing because they have had a strong demonstration effect: they have allowed regional chambers to become more proactive bodies independent of the regional development agencies (which chambers were created to scrutinize). They have also allowed pluralistic conceptions of sustainable regional development to develop in the English regions alongside the economistic perspectives of national policy makers.     

Sustainable energy development in rural Asia

In considering the prospects for sustainable energy, most studies have focused on developments in the urban and industrial areas. However, in Asia where the bulk of the population continues to live in rural areas, it is essential to monitor the changes occurring in the countryside. Therefore, this paper examines the developments taking place in rural energy in Asia in general and focuses specifically on the situation in China. It is observed that a total reorganization of the energy picture is occurring in rural China with regard to both conventional and non-conventional energy, as a result of the huge market for power and fuel created by rapid economic growth. This has led to new distribution networks for electricity (with the Chinese Government following the example of the US Rural Electrification Administration), fossil fuels and renewable energy systems. The growing affluence of the population coupled with rapid industrialization is producing far-reaching changes in the transportation structure as well as in the household energy structure. The situation in China is seen to be comparable to that in other East and Southeast Asian countries, particularly those which combine a rapidly growing industrial sector with a large rural population engaged in agriculture, such as the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia.     

Evaluating Adaptive Governance Approaches to Sustainable Water Management in North-West Thailand

Adaptive governance is advanced as a potent means of addressing institutional fit of natural resource systems with prevailing modes of political–administrative management. Its advocates also argue that it enhances participatory and learning opportunities for stakeholders over time. Yet an increasing number of studies demonstrate real difficulties in implementing adaptive governance ‘solutions’. This paper builds on these debates by examining the introduction of adaptive governance to water management in Chiang Mai province, north-west Thailand. The paper considers, first, the limitations of current water governance modes at the provincial scale, and the rationale for implementation of an adaptive approach. The new approach is then critically examined, with its initial performance and likely future success evaluated by (i) analysis of water stakeholders’ opinions of its first year of operation; and (ii) comparison of its governance attributes against recent empirical accounts of implementation difficulty and failure of adaptive governance of natural resource management more generally. The analysis confirms the potentially significant role that the new approach can play in brokering and resolving the underlying differences in stakeholder representation and knowledge construction at the heart of the prevailing water governance modes in north-west Thailand.     

The Governance of sustainable development in Wales

A new institutional architecture is emerging in Wales to govern sustainable development. The National Assembly for Wales (hereafter referred to as the 'Welsh Assembly')1 has a statutory duty to promote sustainable development in the exercise of all its functions; its response has been to design a set of political and organizational arrangements to manage this policy area, and to prepare a Scheme that sets out how it proposes to discharge this duty. Devolved government in Wales has also been the catalyst for the emergence of collaborative relationships and partnerships between different sectors and interests. The Welsh Assembly and the Welsh Local Government Association have published a Compact jointly committing them to promote sustainable development; national non-governmental organizations such as Oxfam and the World Wide Fund for Nature have set up Welsh agencies; local government sustainable development coordinators have formed a national network; a national Sustainable Development Forum has been created; and the Welsh Assembly has taken the lead in establishing a European network of countries interested in sharing best practice on sustainable development. A new Wales-specific structure and system is materializing and the test now is how far this will be effective in delivering sustainable development policies and solutions at local and national levels. This paper examines the challenges in managing sustainable development, and the potential for success of this new governance system, drawing on recent research undertaken by the author on behalf of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. The examination is set in the context of different theories of governance, and sustainable development is conceptualized as a 'wicked issue'—one that cannot be resolved by organizations and agencies acting autonomously, but rather needs concerted focus and action across all sectors.     

Problems of livestock development in the Himalayan region

Summary This paper outlines the complexities and problems of animal husbandry in the Himalayas of India. In particular, the climatic influences of temperature, rainfall and humidity are emphasised. A wide range of possible improvements to decrease livestock malnutrition and mortality are proposed.Dr J.C. Biswas, BSc, MVSc, works in the Animal Genetics and Breeding Laboratory; Dr R. Somvanshi, MVSc, FRCVS (Sweden) is Veterinary Pathologist in charge of the Clinical Pathology and Medicine Section in Livestock Production Research and Lt.Col. Dr G.S.C. Ranga Rao, MVSc, is Veterinary Parasitologist and Joint Director. All three work at the Indian Veterinary Research Institute.     

Mining and development in the region of Antofagasta

The objective of this paper is to analyse the effect of mining on economic and social development in the region of Antofagasta from 1985 to 2008. Analysis of development is restricted to spheres described by available indicators used by several international and non-governmental organizations such as income distribution, education, health, poverty, human development and security, satisfaction, cost of living, income per capita, GDP per capita, employment, productive activity, added value and its distribution. Correlation between some of these variables is estimated as well as the gap between these indicators and those of developed countries.     

Sustainable development in the mining industry: clarifying the corporate perspective

This paper examines sustainable development in the corporate mining context, and provides some guidelines for mining companies seeking to operate more sustainably. There is now a burgeoning literature that examines sustainable development in the context of minerals and mining, most of which is concerned with sustainability at global and national scales. What is often challenging to ascertain, however, from these numerous perspectives on sustainable mineral extraction, minerals and metals recycling, environmental management, and social performance, is how sustainable development applies to mining companies themselves, and what steps a mine must take in order to improve the sustainability of operations. Since mining processes have the potential to impact a diverse group of environmental entities, and are of interest to a wide range of stakeholder groups, there is ample opportunity for the industry to operate more sustainably. Specifically, with improved planning, implementation of sound environmental management tools and cleaner technologies, extended social responsibility to stakeholder groups, the formation of sustainability partnerships, and improved training, a mine can improve performance in both the environmental and socioeconomic arenas, and thus contribute enormously to sustainable development at the mine level.     

Sustainable rural development in Sokoto State, Nigeria

In Nigeria, as in most countries, institutional barriers to successful rural development exist and need to be addressed. In Sokoto State, a variable and unpredictable Sahelian climate in combination with conditions of high population growth, low levels of income, and environmental degradation, create and intensify institutional challenges. This study examines the sustainability of government initiatives regarding the provision of agricultural inputs, assistance and extension services to farmers, and the extent to which agency efforts are coordinated and integrated, particularly regarding water management. In some cases, rural development agencies demonstrated the capability to meet the needs of the people. Some farmers were satisfied with government assistance and in some areas the tube well programme was quite successful. Yet in Sokoto State many institutional barriers to sustainable rural development exist and need to be addressed. In general, implementation strategies and management procedures appeared narrowly focused and placed little emphasis on coordination and integration among rural development agencies. The result was often inappropriate overlap or oversights in activities .     

Sustainable growth: Compatibility between a plausible growth criterion and the initial state

There is a large body of research devoted to understanding sustainable growth in resource-based economies. Some of this research cannot be applied to real economies directly because the initial states of real economies do not match the initial states assumed in the models. Using a model of theDasgupta–Heal–Solow–Stiglitz variety the paper shows that inconsistency between assumed and actual initial states can lead to a less desirable, in particular, a Pareto inferior path of consumption per capita. The paper also presents a methodology for constructing transition paths from an imperfect initial state to an initial state compatible with the standard steady state consumption path.     

On Governance, Embedding and Marketing: Reflections on the Construction of Alternative Sustainable Food Networks

Based on the reconstruction of the development of 14 food supply chain initiatives in 7 European countries, we developed a conceptual framework that demonstrates that the process of increasing the sustainability of food supply chains is rooted in strategic choices regarding governance, embedding, and marketing and in the coordination of these three dimensions that are inextricably interrelated. The framework also shows that when seeking to further develop an initiative (e.g., through scaling up or product diversification) these interrelations need continuous rebalancing. We argue that the framework can serve different purposes: it can be used as an analytical tool by researchers studying food supply chain dynamics, as a policy tool by policymakers that want to support the development of sustainable food supply chains, and as a reflexive tool by practitioners and their advisors to help them to position themselves, develop a clear strategy, find the right allies, develop their skills, and build the capacities that they need. In this paper, we elaborate upon the latter function of the framework and illustrate this briefly with empirical evidence from three of the initiatives that we studied.     

Sustainable consumption and production: Trends, challenges and options for the Asia-Pacific region

This paper highlights current trends in consumption and production patterns in Asian developing countries and emerging economies. It describes the main challenges and opportunities for Asian countries making the transition towards sustainable consumption and production patterns. The main challenge for Asian economies is to address the unsustainable consumption patterns of urban consumers, which entails a policy shift from the current focus on pollution and inefficient industrial production. In view of future consumption trends and the global convergence of consumption patterns, the characteristics of the emerging 'global consumer class' are examined, with particular focus on urban ecological footprints and carbon emissions. Furthermore, the difference between urban and rural consumption is discussed, together with opportunities for low-carbon urban development in the megacities of Asian developing countries. To conclude, the paper presents an overview of current policy measures taken in Asian countries to green economic development and realise sustainable consumption and production patterns.     

Sustainable development in a country with extensive presence of valuable biotopes

Summary The Greek natural environment shows an extensive diversity of flora and fauna and a significantly high density of important biotopes. This notable ecological wealth is threatened with rapid degradation caused by human activities. Its protection through nature conservation measures and through the control of development projects and activities is obstructed by factors such as the existence of a large number of non-point sources of disturbance which are related to a large number of people, the inefficiencies of State mechanisms, the indifference of local societies with regards to planning procedures and long-term social benefits, and a traditionally indifferent or hostile attitude of countryside people towards nature. A study of the threats against the natural environment shows that the most important of these derive from activities that bring people closer to nature, but which follow a development model that is not sustainable. Such activities are: farming, animal grazing, fishing, tourism, vacation house-building, the opening up of roads, hunting, motorized recreation, etc. Contrary to this, the development of industry and the big enterprises of the tertiary sector appears more compatible with the preservation of a rich natural environment when certain conditions such as effective control, use of modern technology and convergence of business and environmental benefits occur. Consequently, this kind of development shows a better perspective as a sustainable development.Kimon Hadjibiros is a physicist-cum-ecologist working at the National Technical University of Athens. This paper, like others in Volume 15, No. 4 ofThe Environmentalist, was presented at the Global Forum '94 Academic Conference Towards a Sustainable Future: Promoting Sustainable Development, Manchester, UK, in June, 1994.     

Planning for agricultural development in the Himalayan region: An environmental approach

Summary In the present paper efforts have been made to identify an environmentally sustainable and economically gainful strategy for agricultural development in the Himalayan region in Uttar Pradesh State, India. In the underdeveloped rural habitat that exists, a strategy, where the economics of environmentally sustainable development can be studied, is urgently required. The findings have been based on an empirical investigation of 150 sampled households spread over fifteen villages. It was found that the state of Himalayan agriculture and allied activities was in a critical condition, requiring urgent attention in order to improve the human environment. Suggested viable improvements in Himalayan agricultural development may be grouped into four categories, viz., an expansion of the cultivated area, where the land use pattern and other factors are discussed; full utilisation of irrigation potentialities, in which water management is discussed; improvement in the cropping pattern, where the whole system of cropping is analysed; and modifications in the use of agricultural appliances, specially in hoeing, ploughing and inter-culturing implements. Based on a critical analysis of these four identified aspects, economically viable, ecologically sound and socially justified environmental planning may be effectively framed.Dr H.C. Pokhriyal is Head of the Department of Economics at Garhwal University Campus, Tehri, and Dr N.S. Bist is Professor and Head of the Department of Economics at Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Himalaya, U.P., India.