Neighbourhood - Open Space Relationships in Metropolitan Planning: a look across four scales of concern

New Urbanism and other metropolitan planning strategies may discount the importance of neighbourhood - open space relationships when dealing with some types of open spaces, particularly in city centre and urban fringe areas. In this paper I review a series of studies I have carried out over the past decade looking at people's perceptions and uses of urban open space. This research examined neighbourhood - open space relationships in the metropolitan area of Chicago, Illinois, USA at four scales of concern: quasi-public space within an immediate neighbourhood; a public park that spans different neighbourhoods; regional greenways; and a metropolitan bioreserve. In all of this work, my findings show how adjacent neighbourhoods are critical to the success of these open spaces, regardless of their scale. Lessons are drawn from each scale for how neighbourhood - open space relationships might be improved.     

The Economic Value of Open Space: A Review and Synthesis

/ Communities increasingly face development pressures that can irreversibly alter open space lands. While the monetary costs and benefits of development are typically known, the corresponding values of natural lands are complex and difficult to measure. This paper reviews different concepts of economic value in relation to open space, describes methods for quantifying these values, and presents examples of each from published literature. Open space benefits accruing to citizens as market values or consumers' surplus include market and enhancement values, production values, natural systems value, use and nonuse values, and various intangible values. Economic impacts that open space lands have on local communities and economies include fiscal impacts on municipal budgets, expenditures from open space-related activities, and impacts from employment and tax revenues. These values are not universally present within a given community, nor are they quantitatively additive. However, a comprehensive consideration of the multiple values of open space will better inform community decisions about land conservation and development. KEY WORDS: Conservation; Economic value; Land use; Open space; Zoning     

Containing Urban Sprawl: Trends in Land Use and Spatial Planning in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona

In recent decades, there has been considerable debate in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona regarding the role of spatial planning in influencing general land-use trends. There is a widespread belief amongst geographers, environmentalists, planners and some politicians that spatial planning of the metropolitan region has not been particularly successful in reducing urban pressures on rural areas. The aim of this study is to explore the apparent links between urban sprawl, spatial planning and changing land use in the rural-urban fringe of Barcelona. The paper demonstrates that the main impacts of sprawl have been concentrated in agricultural areas, and that the planning system has not been capable of containing urban growth.     

合理规划城区绿地构建景观安全格局 --以吴家山城区绿地规划为例

运用城市生态规划的原理及方法,对吴家山城区绿地进行了规划。包括城市的组团式规划、控制性组分规划、非控制性组分规划、生态平衡构架规划四部分。通过规划,实现吴家山生态城市景观结构和功能的匹配及能流、物流的畅通,使绿地系统上升成为城市生态环境质量的调控系统来建设。     

Public Evaluation of Open Space in Illinois: Citizen Support for Natural Area Acquisition

Numerous studies have indicated a broad-based support for open space preservation and protection. Research also has characterized the public values and rationale that underlie the widespread support for open space. In recognition of the widespread public support for open space, various levels of government have implemented programs to provide public access to open space. There are many different types of open space, ranging from golf courses, ball parks, wildlife areas, and prairies, to name a few. This paper addresses questions related to the types of open space that should be prioritized by planners and natural resource managers. The results of this study are based on a stratified random sample of 5000 households in Illinois that were sent a questionnaire related to their support for various types of open space. Through a comparatively simple action grid analysis, the open space types that should be prioritized for public access include forest areas, stream corridors, wildlife habitat, and lakes/ponds. These were the open space types rated of the highest importance, yet were also the open space types rated the lowest in respondent satisfaction. This kind of analysis does not require the technical expertise of other options for land-use prioritizations (e.g., conjoint analysis, contingent valuation), yet provides important policy directives for planners. Although open space funds often allow for purchase of developed sites such as golf courses, ball parks, and community parks, this study indicates that undeveloped (or nature-based) open space lands are most needed in Illinois.     

Green Space Changes and Planning in the Capital Region of China

Green space plays an important role in complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services with environmental, aesthetic, recreational and economic benefits. Beijing is the capital city of China and has a large population of about 15.81 million. Construction of green spaces is an important part of sustainable development in Beijing. To attain the sustainable development of Beijing as a capital city, an international city, a historical cultural city, and a living amenity city, this article attempts to develop a comprehensive plan of green space development both at the municipal and regional levels. At the municipal level of Beijing, based on the study of green space changes, and taking physical geographic conditions and historical context into account, we propose to establish green barriers in the mountainous area, and plan a comprehensive green space pattern composed of one city, two rings, three networks, eight water areas, nine fields, and several patches in the plain area. At the regional level of the Capital Circle Region, integrating the characteristics and causes of main environmental issues, we design a macroscopic pattern—“barriers by mountains in the northwest,” “seaward open spaces in the southeast,” “grassland-forest-field-coast zones,” and “green-blue symphony”—for ecological restoration and green space construction. Finally, we discuss the principles necessary to implement green space planning considering adaptation to local conditions, composite function exploitation, interregional equity and integrated planning.     

Community-based Organizations and Neighbourhood Environmental Problem Solving: A Framework for Adoption of Information Technologies

Community-based organizations (CBOs) today seek improved capacity to address environmental problems in urban neighbourhoods. Many seek access to information technologies such as the Internet and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to expand information about their neighbourhood's environmental quality to support their planning and service efforts. Experience with the Internet has been bolstered somewhat by programmesto create community networks. This experience and experience with GIS in planning at the municipal and state levels reveals a set of technical, organizational and personal prerequisites that bolster successful and effective adoption of information technologies. This paper reviews these prerequisites as they pertain to CBOs and makes recommendations for transactions that could enhance CBO adoption of the Internet and GIS to address environmental problems in urban neighbourhoods. The paper concludes that a constellation of prerequisite conditions, most predominantly data availability problems, staff skill acquisition and staff retention problems, offer the greatest challenges for CBOs seeking to adopt information technologies to manage environmental problems more effectively.     

Assessing the Ecological Footprint of a Large Metropolitan Water Supplier: Lessons for Water Management and Planning towards Sustainability

Faced with the task of communicating their combined social, environmental and economic impact, water service providers are seeking to report overall performance in an aggregated way. Such a methodology must be scientifically robust, easily communicated and allow benchmarking of performance while reflecting a transition towards sustainability. In this paper the ecological footprint (EF) is calculated for Sydney Water Corporation (SWC), using input-output analysis and land disturbance in an innovative approach that overcomes problems identified in the original EF concept. This pilot study has allowed SWC to gain some valuable insights into its impacts: SWC's annual EF is about 73 100 ha in terms of land disturbance. Of this, 54 000 ha are projected to become disturbed as a consequence of climate change, with the remainder of 19 100 ha being disturbed on SWC's premises (2400 ha) and on those of upstream suppliers (16 700 ha). Total on-site impacts equal 9300 ha, while indirect land disturb ance contributes 63 600 ha. The EF appears promising as an educational and communi cation tool and may have potential as a decision support tool. However, further research is needed to incorporate downstream impacts into the EF, which would have significant benefits to SWC in terms of assessing and communicating the organization's overall progress towards sustainability.     

The Use of Ecologically Based Screening Criteria in a Community-sponsored Open Space Preservation Programme

The Meridian Township Land Preservation Programme is the first community-sponsored, open space and natural areas preservation programme in Michigan using ecological principles in the ranking of properties for acquisition. The programme was established through a collaborative, multi-stakeholder effort that resulted in a model ordinance, operating procedures, guidelines for landowners to nominate their properties for consideration, and a set of criteria for property selection. The screening criteria include ecological value, natural or functional value, parcel size, surrounding land use, environmental quality, and aesthetic value. The criteria were developed to reflect principles established by landscape ecology and land conservation objectives to maintain a maximum degree of biodiversity and to develop, manage and maintain ecological infrastructure through management of protected areas. The programme is entirely funded through a local millage, which will raise nearly $10 million over 10 years. The target for acquisition of open space is approximately 10% of the currently undeveloped parcels in the township.     

Planning in collaborative wildlife management: A critical perspective

Wildlife managers are increasingly faced with planning and implementing wildlife management programs in collaboration with local governments, user groups, businesses and citizens. The planning process is inherently political as each group attempts to advance its interests. Current scholarship on the theory and practice of planning for wildlife management falls short of accounting for the politics of these processes. It is hoped that this paper will contribute to a theory of planning that both addresses the actual practices of wildlife planners and serves as a guide for future action. To this end, the dominant conceptualization of wildlife planning will be outlined and the study will draw on empirical and theoretical advances in the fields of adult education, organizational analysis and regional planning to construct a more politically-informed theoretical framework for understanding wildlife planning. This framework asserts that planning involves two types of negotiation of power and interests: (1) substantive negotiations which address procedural aspects of planning and (2) meta-negotiations which address political dynamics of planning. An earlier study will then be re-analyzed to illustrate how substantive and meta-negotiations occurred in a case of suburban deer management in the Northeast United States. It is concluded that accounting for issues of power and interests in wildlife planning theory provides a more complete representation of what wildlife managers actually do when planning programs and provides a guide for future wildlife planning practice. Future analyses of planning processes in wildlife management, or natural resources management more broadly, may reveal new insights if the concepts used to guide the analysis reported here provide an understanding of the politics involved.     

规划环评中的生态空间识别与生态影响评价探索——以长春新区发展规划为例

强化空间管理是规划环境影响评价优化空间开发、促进"多规合一"的新要求。同时,探索生态空间管控体系是国土空间规划的重点任务之一。本文以长春新区发展规划为例,提出前端空间引导、后端影响调控的生态空间管理体系。前端通过生态系统评价和生态空间识别,提出生态保护红线划定建议方案,确定开发"底线"。后端通过InVEST生境质量评价技术,对生境退化度及生境质量进行空间评价,识别生境威胁源影响区域,提出优化空间布局的规划调控建议。研究表明:耕地是新区发生变化幅度最为显著的用地类型,纳入生态空间管控的用地约占16.2%。其中,15.8%的用地建议纳入生态保护红线进行管理。未来城市开发对生境有一定影响,整体生境质量平均值由0.401下降至0.328。     

Skewed Riskscapes and Environmental Injustice: A Case Study of Metropolitan St. Louis

This article presents a case study of Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) air pollution exposure risks across metropolitan St. Louis. The first section critically reviews environmental justice research and related barriers to environmental risk management. Second, the paper offers a conventional analysis of the spatial patterns of TRI facilities and their surrounding census block group demographics for metropolitan St. Louis. Third, the article describes the use of an exposure risk characterization for 319 manufacturers and their air releases of more than 126 toxic pollutants. This information could lead to more practical resolutions of urban environmental injustices. The analysis of TRIs across metropolitan St. Louis shows that minority and low-income residents were disproportionately closer to industrial pollution sources at nonrandom significance levels. Spatial concentrations of minority residents averaged nearly 40% within one kilometer of St. Louis TRI sites compared to 25% elsewhere. However, one-fifth of the region's air pollution exposure risk over a decade was spatially concentrated among only six facilities on the southwestern border of East St. Louis. This disproportionate concentration of some of the greatest pollution risk would never be considered in most conventional environmental justice analyses. Not all pollution exposure risk is average, and the worst risks deserve more attention from environmental managers assessing and mitigating environmental injustices.     

The exuberant planet: A global look at the role of utilities in protecting biodiversity

Biodiversity is a critical environmental issue. Biodiverse species as a source of unique genetic information, for example, continues to provide society with lifesaving drugs and important industrial chemicals. Since US utilities are substantial landholders and virtually every aspect of utility operations are in some way tied to environmental/biodiversity issues, it is important and essential that the utility industry step forward as a leader. This paper details the past, present, and future role that utilities have played and need to play in the very important arena of biodiversity.     

生态空间完整性建设与保护研究—基于同江市“多规合一”的实践

本文旨在探讨如何使较大生态空间斑块形成闭合区域,在空间属性上保持相对的完整性和单一性,并加以有效保护,使生态空间真正成为城市发展的绿色屏障。从现有文献和同江市"多规合一"实践看,由于历史遗留、追逐利益和监管不力等诸多因素,生态空间甚至核心区域内有耕地和较大面积的生活聚居区挤占生态空间,导致环境质量下降。可通过退耕还林还草工程、迁出生态空间居民工程和加强生物多样性保护工程等路径实现生态空间完整性。与此同时,采取加大对生态空间的保护力度、提高公众对生态空间完整性的认识、建立科学的生态补偿机制及加强中俄生态保护合作等措施加以保护。     

The changing face of public concern about pollution in the United States: A case study of New Jersey

National surveys and a survey conducted by the authors in March and April 2004 revealed that the public’s concerns about air, water and land pollution have declined during the last four years in the United States and more specifically in the State of New Jersey. In New Jersey pollution remains a major concern of most residents, even during a period of a war, anxiety about terrorism and the economy. Those most anxious about pollution do not believe that government is doing enough to protect the environment, want to maintain current environmental laws, and are worried about the future. Disproportionately they are African and White Americans, middle income, and college graduates, in other words, part of the American mainstream. Direct attempts to weaken environmental protection are likely to be resisted by this core of the population, which does not trust current federal, state and local governments to protect the environment. We expect concerns for the environment to continue and yet change as production processes in the United States continue a trend toward pollution prevention, and we wait for the public’s mental models to catch up with this evolving reality.     

城市犯罪问题中的非公共空间盲区微观环境分析

城市地域空间内部的各类空间盲区是城市犯罪事件构成要件中必不可少的环节,非公共空间作为城市内部最常见的一种空间表现形式,存在其中的盲区是城市犯罪问题中的关键点。非公共空间盲区的形成有赖于微观环境的广泛性和独特性,剖析根植其中不同的致盲因素,对预防犯罪问题的产生和遏制犯罪事件的发展有着至关重要的作用。     

Impact of Demographic Trends on Future Development Patterns and the Loss of Open Space in the California Mojave Desert

During the post-World War II era, the Mojave Desert Region of San Bernardino County, California, has experienced rapid levels of population growth. Over the past several decades, growth has accelerated, accompanied by significant shifts in ethnic composition, most notably from predominantly White non-Hispanic to Hispanic. This study explores the impacts of changing ethnicity on future development and the loss of open space by modeling ethnic propensities regarding family size and settlement preferences reflected by U.S. Census Bureau data. Demographic trends and land conversion data were obtained for seven Mojave Desert communities for the period between 1990 and 2001. Using a spatially explicit, logistic regression-based urban growth model, these data and trends were used to project community-specific future growth patterns from 2000 to 2020 under three future settlement scenarios: (1) an “historic” scenario reported in earlier research that uses a Mojave-wide average settlement density of 3.76 persons/ha; (2) an “existing” scenario based on community-specific settlement densities as of 2001; and (3) a “demographic futures” scenario based on community-specific settlement densities that explicitly model the Region’s changing ethnicity. Results found that under the demographic futures scenario, by 2020 roughly 53% of within-community open space would remain, under the existing scenario only 40% would remain, and under the historic scenario model the communities would have what amounts to a deficit of open space. Differences in the loss of open space across the scenarios demonstrate the importance of considering demographic trends that are reflective of the residential needs and preferences of projected future populations.     

Choosing restorative environments across the lifespan: A matter of place experience

Past research on restorativeness has emphasized mainly the potential of natural environments. In our hypothesis, built environments are also likely to be recognized as restorative places. In this study, focusing on restorative experiences more than on environments alone, attention is drawn on the relative importance of the four restorative components proposed by “attention restoration theory”—being-away, extent, fascination, compatibility—in leisure experiences of people at different stages of the lifespan, and on the characterization of these experiences in terms of relaxation and excitement. We also take account of the time available for restoration and the context in which the need for restoration may emerge, according to three models of the relationships between work and leisure: spill-over, compensation and segmentation. Results show that natural and built environments can have different restorative potentials in relation to the stage of the lifespan and to the time available for restoration; moreover, in people's perception, the four restorative components differ from each other in their relative importance. The social and affective dimensions came out as important features of restorative experiences. Finally, relaxation and excitement in leisure patterns were shown to be differentially related to work characteristics. Briefly, restorativeness emerged as the result of a global “place experience”.     

A new look at the old problem of eutrophication management in southern Africa

Summary This paper contrasts the traditional engineering approach to eutrophication management with a proposed systems approach. Legislative, social, economic and technical aspects of eutrophication are identified. Through the use of some recent case studies, the importance of the socioeconomic factors relative to the legal-technical aspects of eutrophication management is highlighted. Whilst the latter retain their vital role in eutrophication control programmes, this paper suggests that the former cannot be ignored, and recommends adoption of a systems approach to the management of eutrophication.Dr Jeffrey A. Thornton and Guy Boddington are Senior Planning Professionals in the Environmental Planning Section of the Town Planning Branch, City Planner's Department, Cape Town, with practical interests in water quality management and integrated environmental management in the African urban environment. Dr Thornton is a registered professional ecologist and editor of the research journal,Journal of the Limnological Society of Southern Africa.