Social learning and sustainable communities: An interim assessment of research into sustainable communities projects in the UK

The delivery of many of the most pressing environmental issues will rely on changes in environmental attitudes and behaviour at community level. At a UN Special Session in 1997, the British Government highlighted its initiatives on Local Agenda 21 (LA21) and Going for Green (GFG) as significant advances. This paper adds a new perspective, drawing on the range of experiences of some of the research teams that have been working with local authorities on pilot Sustainable Community Projects (SCPs) in England and Scotland. It sheds light on three substantive themes: the tensions inherent in the implementation of internationally and nationally agreed goals through local action; the ambiguity of local agencies acting as facilitators of community ownership of processes, and the requirements for successful partnership between local authorities and higher education.     

The role of learning in sustainable communities of practice

This paper adds to the literature on skills for sustainable communities by examining the role and processes of learning in “communities of practice” that exist within a “grassroots association”. Interviews were conducted with participants in the communities of practice of a student group called Green Action, which engages with environmental issues in practical ways. The findings demonstrate how learning occurred in the communities of practice, how participants gained skills and knowledge for sustainable consumption, and how learning in the communities of practice appeared to help Green Action to sustain itself in the long-term. This paper could serve as a useful demonstration to others as to how to apply the theories and concepts from the literature on communities of practice when researching skills and knowledge for sustainable communities. It also has some value for grassroots associations themselves in understanding their own activities.     

Building capacity through action research: reflections on working with low-carbon communities in the UK

This paper describes a four-year programme of “action research” (AR) undertaken with six communities in the UK, referred to as the Evaluating Low-Carbon Communities (EVALOC) project. The research combined a programme of research events with phased household-level monitoring of energy and carbon-reduction interventions. The carbon-reduction interventions were funded by the UK’s Department of Energy and Climate Change prior to the onset of the research. AR has recently been adopted within the context of environmental behaviour change programmes in the UK, with a number of methodological challenges. The EVALOC project’s challenges included developing a collaborative research design; building reciprocity between the researchers and research participants; dealing with biases and burdens in the research process; ensuring analytical rigour in the interpretation of the primarily qualitative evidence and dealing with the long-term and process-driven outcomes that arise from such interactions. This paper explores and discusses the challenges of AR in relation to selected research outcomes from EVALOC. We conclude by suggesting that the AR approach has helped to build capacity in the participating low-carbon communities (LCCs), through supporting the design, delivery and evaluation of their energy and carbon-reduction activities.     

Addressing environmental inequalities in UK policy: An action research perspective

In the UK there has been a serious attempt under the current government to foster policy making which is evidence-based and therefore more likely to deliver its intended results. In this article we consider the types of evidence and evidence making that might be required to build effective policy for addressing environmental inequalities. We draw on our experiences of developing an action research approach to policy making in the Environment Agency over a two year period from July 2002 to August 2004. We conclude that an action research approach is well suited to policy making within this new but rapidly growing area of sustainable development policy and urge further exploration of such approaches as a means of better connecting the relevant research, policy making and practitioner communities.     

Community-based participatory research: Changing scientific practice from research on communities to research with and for communities

This paper examines community based participatory research from the viewpoint of the author, a doctoral student seeking to understand the concepts and framework of successful participatory research as a complement to traditional discipline driven research. Challenges and progress of CBPR within academia are examined, including acceptance, funding, training, and development of equal partnerships between university researchers and communities. Case studies (Latowsky, 2003; Ammerman et al., 2003; Stratford et al., 2003) focus on CBPR in different environmental justice communities, revealing the need to foster trust and communication in order to execute culturally competent and relevant research projects.     

Community-based participatory research: Changing scientific practice from research on communities to research with and for communities

The Agenda 21 treaty adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development set out new goals for the provision and management of information in a sustainable society. New information and communications technologies (ICTs) have the potential to be used as tools for managing information and consequently have a role in sustainable development. This paper considers the use of ICTs to manage local information areas and the extent to which these new technologies are compatible with the broader goals of Agenda 21 such as social inclusion and public participation in decision making. The use of the World Wide Web by local authorities in the UK to manage local information and promote Agenda 21 is explored through a critique of website contents. It is concluded that, although the use of ICTs is not incompatible with the broader aims of Agenda 21, and has many possible positive applications, current use of the World Wide Web by local government in the UK does not yet fulfil this potential.     

Trying harder: Developing a new sustainable strategy for the UK

The UK reviewed its National Sustainable Development Strategy during 2003 and 2004, and produced a new strategy — the third for the UK — in March 2005. Having established that the main weakness of the previous strategy was in its delivery, the review and the resulting new strategy set out to put a much stronger emphasis on delivery mechanisms. In support of this, the process included more participative ways for those involved in delivering to contribute their views and ideas, including web‐based dialogue, participative events and seminars, and community level discussions. The key points for the success of the project were the involvement of stakeholders; project management of the process; a marketing and communications strategy; cross‐departmental governance; and involvement of an external challenge function (fulfilled in the UK by the Sustainable Development Commission).     

Social innovation and the governance of sustainable places

This article explores social innovation as a tool for the promotion of place-based sustainable development. The literature highlights the satisfaction of basic needs and situations of crises as two major drivers of socially innovative actions. We use these insights to explore the conditions under which social innovation can lead to social transformation and sustainable place making. We also recognise that social processes occur through, and are shaped by, the material forms that constitute and are constituted in place-specific settings. This highlights the deep interconnections that exist between place making and the resources, attributes and characterises – the materiality (such as rivers, soil, trees) – that exist within that locality. It is here that a close tie can be discerned between understanding the adaptive process in complex socio-ecological systems and the role of social innovation in such adaptation. Socially innovative initiatives at the community level can also be scaled upwards through the co-ordinating role of the state, while at the same time act as a pressure for more participatory forms of governance. Governance processes that enhance the role of both economic and social actors in the steering of social change help to infuse more open, democratic practices into social steering. With social, economic and state actors co-mingling as agents of social change, social innovation can come to play a key role in enhancing sustainable human–environment interactions.     

Place-based local governance and sustainable communities: lessons from Canadian biosphere reserves

The quest for sustainable communities might be fostered by a new ‘place-based’ governing approach that engages civil society and other actors in local decision-making processes. In Canada, lessons can be learned from the establishment and maintenance of biosphere reserves by networks of local communities of interests and other organisations. Biosphere reserves are created to promote conservation, biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods. Municipal and public participation in these reserves can be encouraged, promoting a local sense of place as well as sustainable community and regional development. An examination of two Canadian biosphere reserves, Riding Mountain and Long Point, illustrates how local governments and these reserves might assist each other in their mutual goals of long-term sustainability while offering a worthwhile model of local collaborative, place-based governance.     

Challenges facing the sustainable consumption and waste management agendas: perspectives on UK households

The management of municipal waste is one of the most emotive local environmental issues in the UK at present and represents a key sustainability “battleground” as local authorities seek to reduce waste arisings and encourage the reuse and recycling of materials among households. Within the literature on household waste management, a broad range of disciplinary perspectives and practical recommendations exist and it is the aim of this paper to step back and take stock of the role of households and communities in resource consumption and waste generation patterns across the UK within recent decades. By exploring the household in this context, trends in consumption and waste generation are outlined in addition to key influencing factors such as lifestyles and well-being, demographics and environment. Finally, key lessons learnt, challenges faced going forward and approaches for developing more sustainable practices at the household, community and national levels are discussed.     

Collecting data in artisanal and small-scale mining communities: Measuring progress towards more sustainable livelihoods

This short note discusses methodological obstacles to the collection of microeconomic data in artisanal and small-scale mining communities. International donor organizations are supporting policy efforts that enhance the contribution to poverty alleviation of this mining subsector. The design and evaluation of such policy interventions require data on income, expenditure, investment, and savings in mining households and communities. These data are difficult to come by. Incomes are variable; migrants may work far from home; miners often work informally and sometimes illegally; mining populations and communities are heterogeneous and transient; and miners have many reasons to distort information. Legalization and organization of miners in cooperatives would facilitate documentation and research. These processes, however, are beyond the control of the typical policy consultant or donor organization. On their part, these parties can adopt an alternative model of research. This model involves the community in project development, data collection, and monitoring. It emphasizes continuity, cultural diversity, trust building and learning. The data thus collected should provide a firm basis for programmes that promote more sustainable livelihoods in artisanal and small-scale mining communities.     

The multiple communities of low-carbon transition: an assessment of communities involved in forest carbon measurement

In recent writing on sociotechnical transitions theory communities are mostly conceived of as being local and place-based (“grassroots”). In this paper the implications for sociotechnical transitions theory of having multiple communities operating at different geographical scales, and with different objectives, are examined through a case study of low-carbon innovation in forests. The focus of analysis is the communities promoting sociotechnical innovations in the measurement of forest carbon. Innovation is being driven by the international United Nations climate policy initiative “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation” (REDD+). The rise of REDD+ policy has prompted a flurry of activity in related scientific research, especially in the field of remote sensing. But other types of community are also actively positioning themselves as experts in forest carbon measurement: there are multiple communities at work, each with varying claims to innovation and expertise, from local (place-based) forest communities to international communities of foresters and forest ecologists. Recognition of the multiple communities operating within sociotechnical systems usefully draws our attention to the politics of innovation.     

Environmental impact assessment of infrastructure projects: a governance perspective

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been promoted as an instrument for preventive environmental management in construction projects, but its performance in safeguarding the environment through influencing project decision-making is questioned. This paper probes the underlying reasons from a governance perspective as an important supplement to the regulatory and technical perspectives. A framework, with process integration, professional governance, and public engagement being its key components, is proposed to analyze the governance arrangements that enable or inhibit the effective functioning of EIA, based on which a comparative study of three infrastructure projects in China, the United States and Finland was conducted. The results reveal that, while the level of process integration and public engagement of EIA determines the degree to which EIA influences project decisions, it is the professional governance that controls the accountability of EIA. The paper has implications on institutionally where efforts should be directed to improve the performance of EIA.     

Gearing-up governance for sustainable development: Patterns of policy appraisal in UK central government

The UK is reportedly an international leader in the application of environmental policy appraisal (EPA). From the late 1980s until 2004, UK central government sought to produce ex ante assessments of the potential environmental impacts of different policy options. Critics maintain that EPA had a very limited impact on policy-making activities in Whitehall departments. However, the empirical basis for these claims is surprisingly thin. This paper seeks to better understand what facilitated or retarded EPA by looking at its use in Whitehall, with the aim being to draw lessons for the UK's new and more integrated appraisal regime, as well as similar systems in the European Union. The paper finds that the implementation of EPA was both weak and highly sectorised, and that there is an underlying resistance to policy appraisal per se in Whitehall. These weaknesses urgently need to be addressed otherwise new systems of integrated appraisal will not deliver what is expected of them.     

A methodological assessment of raw materials in the UK

Many projects have attempted to model the consumption and recycling patterns of important raw materials, but without assessing the significance of that raw material to the UK. This article methodically assesses all the factors which influence the importance of each raw material, and ranks them in descending order of importance. Sensitivity analyses confirm that the resultant ranking is largely independent of factors used. Copper, oil, iron and steel, and aluminium, are the four most significant materials. This work provided the justification for a detailed examination of the copper industry and, in particular, the significance of recycling.     

Use of recycled products in UK construction industry: An empirical investigation into critical impediments and strategies for improvement

Construction industry consumes about half of all material resources taken from nature, and generates a large portion of waste to landfill. A way of tackling negative environmental impacts impending from continuous material extraction and waste generation is the use of recycled materials for construction projects. However, the use of recycled materials is yet to become a commonplace in construction industry. This study evaluates the factors hampering the use of recycled products in UK construction industry as well as strategies that could be adopted to enhance its use in the industry. In order to identify the impediments and critical strategies, a two-fold methodical approach was used. An unstructured interview preceded a quantitative questionnaire survey which was used to elicit broader industry practitioners’ opinion.The study shows that designers rarely specify recycled products. This is due to lack of adequate information about quality and market availability of the products, negative perception from clients, and unexpectedly high cost of the products, despite its perceived low quality. The study suggests that a number of strategies could be adopted to promote the use of the products. These include allocation of points to the use of recycled products in sustainable design appraisal tools, governments legislative measures, improved collaboration between designers, contractors and materials suppliers, contractors involvement at earlier stage of design, improved education of the professionals about the products, and the use of tax break to influence the cost of the products. The findings of this study would therefore help policy makers, manufacturers and construction professionals to identify the factors hampering the use of recycled products for construction projects as well as the strategies that could be adopted in order to create market for the products.     

Economic appraisal and evaluation of UK waste minimisation clubs: proposals to inform the design of sustainable clubs

Waste minimisation clubs have been established for some 12 years in the UK. During that time, they have been significant driving forces in disseminating sustainable waste management practices in industry and commerce. Clubs have also demonstrated that they can achieve significant reductions in levels of waste. However, data on the economic benefits of these clubs remain scanty and disparate. In addition, no standard methodology has developed to assess whether the investment costs of clubs can be justified on grounds of either economic welfare or sustainable development, despite the theoretical advantages from doing so. Against this background, the paper considers the need for economic appraisal and evaluation of waste minimisation clubs and discusses how these methods could be applied to the creation of clubs that will be sustainable over time.     

Investigation of sustainable energy alternatives for powering remote communities in northern Ontario

ABSTRACT

Remote communities in the North of Ontario survive in isolation as their proximity to the southern industrial sector of the province limits their accessibility to the major grid. The lack of grid connection has led to antiquated methods of power generation which pollute the environment and deplete the planet of its natural resources. Aside from the primary means of electricity generation being by diesel generators, generation infrastructure is deteriorating due to age and the stagnation of the power supply has led to communities facing load restrictions. These challenges may be resolved by introducing clean energy alternatives and providing a fuel blend option. The primary energy sources investigated in this research are solar, wind, and hydrogen. To assess the viability of these energy production methods in Northern communities, an exergy analysis is employed as it utilizes both the first and second law of thermodynamics to determine systems’ efficiency and performance in the surroundings. Local weather patterns were used to determine the viability of using wind turbines, solar panels and/or hydrogen fuel cells in a remote community. Through analysis of the resources available at the community, it was determined that the hydrogen fuel cell was best suited to provide clean energy to the community. Wind resulted in low efficiency in the range of 2–3% while solar efficiencies resulted in ranges of 18 – 19%, as the seasonal variations between the three years is not very great. Due to the higher operating efficiencies observed of the PV panels it would also be an attractive alternative to diesel generators however, the lack of consistent operation above 30% efficiency throughout the year, resulted in hydrogen fuel cells being a better alternative.     

The greening of Chicago: environmental leaders and organisational learning in the transition toward a sustainable metropolitan region

Urban sustainability literature calls for new governance relations to support green urban agendas. Privileging non-hierarchical relations, this literature fails to address the means by which organisations create these capacities. The author interviewed public, private and community environmental leaders in metropolitan Chicago regarding their disposition toward creating boundary spanning organisations (BSOs) in addressing the City's Environmental Action Agenda. Their responses reflect engaged efforts to enhance cross-boundary sharing of information, resources, and power. However, they also reflect the decisive role of central authority in initiating this process. These findings suggest the complexity of urban governance in transitions toward sustainability and the opportunities they provide to explore the implications of on-the-ground practice.     

The UK Landfill Tax: an analysis of its contribution to sustainable waste management

The UK Government in October 1996 introduced a Landfill Tax to ensure that landfill waste disposal is properly priced so as to reflect its environmental cost and to help promote a more sustainable approach to waste management in which less waste is produced, reused or recycled. The UK Customs and Excise have recently reviewed the tax and the report indicates that there has been a modest reduction in waste going to landfill by industry but not households. It is submitted that for there to be a significant move towards a more sustainable approach to waste management to meet the targets set in the National Strategy the tax should be higher and the money raised by the tax should be invested to make alternatives to landfill cheaper and more readily available. It is also submitted that the Tax Credit Scheme, introduced as a means of enabling some of the tax to be invested to promote better waste management, is inadequately funded and the money is inappropriately focused. Following an examination of the projects and contributions made under the Scheme it is found that most of the contributions are not made towards projects which will fulfil the UK Government's perceived purposes. It is further submitted that there needs to be a more rational approach to waste management and legislation in Philadelphia forms a good case study of such an approach