Local or global food markets: A comparison of energy use for transport

This study compares energy use for food transport to a farmers' market in Sweden with energy use for transport in the conventional food system. The farmers' market was investigated through data sampling from on-site investigations. The conventional food system was studied with the aid of life cycle assessments reported in the literature. Overall, the study found no significant differences in levels of energy use for transport to the farmers' market compared with the conventional food system. For certain products, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, transport-related energy use was much lower in the local system although the season in Sweden for this kind of product is restricted to two or three months at the end of the summer. However, there is considerable potential to increase energy efficiency in local food systems by organizing the selling in new ways and by using more energy efficient vehicles.     

Farmers’ market governance and its role on consumer motives and outcomes

Local food systems and farmers' markets across the USA have experienced unprecedented growth and development in the past 20 years. While scholarship has examined participant demographics and motives for engaging in farmers' markets, few studies have considered the coupled nature of those attending the markets with institutional governance systems used for market coordination. This study examined participation in farmers' markets under the framework of high and low market governance systems, specifically considering the demographics, values for local foods, motives for attending farmers' markets, and outcomes of the experience based on the dichotomous governance classification. Governance was characterized using four attributes: market rules or policies, paid employee(s), a rule governing geography of food origin, and affiliation with an organisation or agency. Our results suggest that market governance may impact (1) which consumers attend the market, (2) motives among those who attend the market, and (3) satisfaction outcome levels among market participants. By better understanding how the emerging governance system impacts who ultimately attends the market (and the outcomes of the experience), agencies coordinating farmers' markets and market managers can ultimately improve the market's reach and experience with greater intentionality.     

Local food networks as catalysts for food policy change to improve health and build the economy

Local food networks (LFNs) are growing in popularity, in part as a response to broader criticisms of conventional food production. Municipal policy-makers have the opportunity to work with stakeholders to build LFNs to increase access to healthy foods in cities and ultimately improve population health and well-being. Building opportunities for healthy eating is particularly important in our study area. Flint, Michigan, is a post-industrial shrinking city suffering from the economic and health effects of deindustrialisation. Various stakeholders in Flint have responded to a significant issue with access to food by strengthening collaborations through a food policy council (FPC). Growth in the local food system has been supported by administrators and community advocates alike, through supporting community gardens, farmers' markets, and urban agriculture in a manner similar to nearby Detroit. Participant observation was conducted with stakeholders involved in the development of the LFN and the FPC in Flint. Stakeholders were exposed to existing research on the food system to help inform their policy direction. The group expressed several core concerns and prospects for future work, including a strong emphasis on consensus-based decision-making. Based on the synthesis of stakeholder opinions, policy recommendations are made to aid in continued planning of the LFN. Planning for food is an important first step in improving public health and strengthening local economic development in post-industrial cities. This research highlights the issue by making explicit the challenges and opportunities for policy advocacy in LFNs.     

Niagara region farmers' markets: local food systems and sustainability considerations

This article presents the findings of a survey of farmers' markets customers in the Niagara region of Ontario, Canada. The recent growth of farmers' markets in North America and the association of these markets with local food systems development provoke examination to gain insights into consumer motivations for patronizing these markets, and to then reflect on their potential role within locally oriented and sustainable food production systems. The survey carried out on customers of three Niagara region farmers' markets corroborates previous studies that noted that socioeconomic and cultural factors such as the importance of food freshness, support of local farmers and the local farm economy, and social interaction—embeddedness—are key expressions of people's support and interest in farmers' markets. This work serves to heighten our understanding of consumer attitudes toward direct marketing via farmers' markets, yields useful speculation about these markets and their roles in sustainable local food systems progress, and also raises critical questions about such customer patronage and associated farmers' markets potential in local food system development.     

Local authorities and climate protection in the European union: Putting subsidiarity into practice?

Abstract

Although intrinsically a global environmental concern, the climate change issue has a number of implications for local authorities. Within the European Union (EU), the remit of local authorities in—‐for abatement policies—the crucial areas of energy and transport policy varies considerably, as does their commitment to environmental action more generally. This paper examines the role of local authorities in climate protection within a framework of global, EU and national action, through examples of local strategies from Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and the UK. The paper finds positive instances of action in all countries, but points to unsympathetic policy frameworks both at national and EU level, such as budget constraints imposed on local authorities, the pursuit of low energy prices combined with a resistance to impose carbon taxes, a lack of energy efficiency standards and insufficient support for public transport.     

Leveraging foodways for health and justice

ABSTRACT

The global industrial food system is increasingly recognised as a source of poor health that deepens social and economic inequity. Health advocates, policy makers, and food activists strive to improve nutrition and food access across racial and ethnic divides; however, given established approaches, they may miss fundamental pathways for improving health and justice comprehensively. While food access and nutrition are often identified as primary concerns for marginalised communities and the reason for food insecurity and food-related illness, critical food justice scholars use a more expansive lens to suggest a democratised food system is needed, and that solutions based solely in access to healthy food can undermine more systemic approaches. Our research extends this analysis, highlighting the importance of endemic food culture (foodways) as a tool for retaining identity, building community, and maintaining health among refugee populations in one community in Salt Lake City, Utah. Further, this work suggests that community engagement and expertise is essential in leveraging foodways such that marginalised communities can effectively resist cheap, unhealthy, and placeless calories.     

Two ways of defining sustainable mobility: Autolib’ and BeMobility

Abstract

European cities have emerged as laboratories for ‘sustainable mobility'. In the last few years, they have supported numerous electric car projects which combine clean engine technologies with offers on public or shared mobility. This paper compares two ongoing public electric car services in Berlin (BeMobility) and Paris (Autolib’). We explain how both projects shape future visions of sustainable mobility and transform regional transport systems in specific ways through their performative impact as local transport policy tools. Focusing on the socio-economic and political processes through which both projects were conceived and put into practice, we explain their differences as they reflect participating actors' interests in a French versus German industrial and transport policy context after the economic crisis in 2008. We find that whereas BeMobility integrates electric cars as one element in Berlin's intermodal transport system, and thus is centred around ‘intermodality' as the central vision of sustainable transport, Autolib’ in Paris essentially reproduces the dominant mode of private passenger car transport through adding a shared electric car fleet.     

Local Transport Problems and Possible Solutions: Comparing perceptions of residents,elected members,officers and organisations

It is generally accepted that the current growth in personal car use poses a serious threat to local communities and the environment, and that radical changes in transport policy are needed. In order for local authorities to develop acceptable sustainable transport options, it will be necessary that they have a clear view of the attitudes and perceptions of various groups in their community. This research compared the views of elected members and officers with those of residents and organisations in relation to the local transport situation and the use of car travel reduction measures. It was found that the views of elected members and officers reflect those of residents rather well. The views of local organisations, however, were different. Organisations were, in particular, more negative about policy measures that aim to reduce car use in the town centre. They also attached more importance to the viability of the local economy than the other respondents. However, they did agree with the other groups that the quality of life in the community would improve if there was less traffic. The consequences of these findings for local transport planning are discussed.     

Beyond a bottle of liquid: pesticide dependence in transitional rural China

Pesticide dependence is a major threat to food safety and local environment. Although numerous studies have explored different causes of pesticide dependence, few have examined how pesticides are locked into agricultural modernisation and rural transformation. Based on a case study of a Chinese village, this paper demonstrates how agricultural modernisation trajectory and rural changes have perpetuated the use of pesticides as necessities in agriculture as well as for farmers' livelihoods. Modern technologies, such as hybrid rice, conservation tillage, changes in crop structure, and reduction of intercropping all contribute highly towards pesticide dependence. The household responsibility system in China has provided the institutional foundation for increased pesticide use. Rural transformations driven by livelihoods diversification have created conducive social spaces for pesticide application. To step out of pesticide dependence, promotion of genetic diversity in agriculture, a reassessment of locational suitability of conservation tillage, institutional strengthening and the promotion of integrated pest management methods are suggested.     

Positive Planning for Wind-Turbines in an Urban Context

Abstract

An international concern with climate change has prompted a political commitment to the use of renewable energies. Yet, the operationalization and management of this political objective may be frustrated at the local level, where, it is suggested, an implementation impasse exists. This paper reports on a case study that examines the planning issues around the harvesting of wind at an urban brownfield site in Scotland. The paper discusses the nature of the state–market–civil relations involved in the development management of private wind-energy infrastructure, and the potential for a positive mediating role for the planning system.     

An environmental assessment of food supply chains: a case study on dessert apples

The contemporary food system provides consumers with convenience, extensive choice, and the year-round availability of fresh produce. In this paper these achievements are recognized within the context of the associated environmental impacts. While many analyses have considered the energy and material efficiency of various options for food production and packaging, very few studies have investigated the environmental impacts of the transport components of food supply chains. This is surprising, given that the global sourcing of food produce, centralized distribution systems, and shopping by car have become prevalent in recent decades and have contributed to an increase in the distance between producer and consumer or “food miles.” In a case study the transport energy consumption is calculated for all possible ways in which dessert apples can be supplied to the UK consumer. The aim is to assess the environmental performance of the predominant fresh produce supply chains and to investigate claims that localized systems are more environmentally efficient. The main criteria used to compare the environmental efficiency in alternative food supply chains are the transport-related fossil-fuel energy consumption and associated carbon dioxide emissions. Analysis of the empirical data shows that transportation is now responsible for a considerable fraction of the total energy consumption in the life cycle of fresh apples, and in most cases exceeds the energy consumed in commercial apple cultivation. By developing local production and marketing systems for fresh products, transport demand can be reduced and many of the environmental impacts associated with existing supply chains can be avoided. The results of the study are then discussed in relation to the wider issues of transport policy, international trade, food security, and product-related environmental information for consumers.     

Connecting resourcefulness and social innovation: exploring conditions and processes in community gardens in the Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Resourcefulness, a community’s capacity to engage with their local resource base, is essential in contributing to resilience, the potential to adapt to external challenges and shocks. Resourcefulness and social innovation have some overlapping qualities, however, the academic connection between the two concepts is yet to be explored. Social innovations include new practices, ideas, and initiatives that meet societal needs and contribute to social change and empowerment. Through in-depth interviews and participant observation, this study researches conditions and processes of resourcefulness in facilitating social innovation in rural, peri-urban, and urban community gardens in the North of the Netherlands. Comparing differing contexts, five main enablers for altering social relations and community empowerment have been identified: (1) clear goals and motivations; (2) diversity in garden resources; (3) experimental knowledge processes; (4) strong internal support and recognition; and (5) place-based practices. Above all, this research stresses the importance of defining resourcefulness as a process and foregrounding the place-based contextual nature of innovative collective food system practices.     

Farmers’ markets – linking food consumption and the ecology of food production?

Urban and industrialised societies usually involve little connection between consumers and the resource base upon which the production of goods depends. Changing this situation could potentially enhance social and ecological sustainability. This study explored ecological aspects of the educational role of local food supply, with the aim of identifying signs of enhanced consumer understanding or awareness of the ecology of food production resulting from producer–consumer interaction. A series of qualitative interviews were carried out with customers at a farmers’ market in Stockholm. The results showed that the interviewees were mainly concerned with quality, price and taste, and not production conditions. In addition, a number of interviewees experienced a sense of trust when shopping at the market. We found few examples of contributions to ecological knowledge among customers at the market, but there were some examples of learning opportunities. The local food supplied by the market reminded customers of the seasonality of production. Stallholders also provided information on how to store, prepare and cook vegetables, which may encourage a change in diet that is preferable from an environmental standpoint.     

Sustainable local land use policy: rhetoric and reality

Abstract

This study examined trends in population redistribution and residential land use changes in northeast Scotland during 1988 to 2003. We utilised a geographical information system (GIS) tool to bring together data from interrelated sources and to analyse population settlement and land use changes at detailed spatial scale. This analysis revealed that substantial land conversion had taken place in the region; particularly conversion of agricultural lands to built-up and residential areas. It also drew attention to policy conflicts, discrepancies between policy rhetoric and policy implementations. More specifically, it was shown that substantial farm land conversion had taken place in suburban areas and rural Aberdeenshire with little change in the size of derelict land in Aberdeen City. The reason given for this was that it was costly to rehabilitate and reuse derelict lands and this conflicted with the objective of providing affordable housing in the City region. The implication of this study is that if the declared policy objectives of integrated and sustainable land use and transport policies are to be achieved, then local authorities may need to cooperate to minimise conflicts between economic and environmental objectives.     

Realising local food policies: a comparison between Toronto and the Brussels-Capital Region’s stories through the lenses of reflexivity and co-learning

ABSTRACT

This paper revisits the development of Toronto and Brussels’ local food policies by analysing reflexivity and co-learning as important dimensions within a Hybrid Governance Approach (HGA); it approaches the interaction between four forms of governance (bottom-up, networked, state, market-led) and the tensions between them as hybrid dynamics. Within this approach, reflexivity refers to the positionality of agents, i.e. to the ways local food actors embody as well as reflect on and reconsider their principles and practices through time. Closely related to reflexivity, co-learning involves agential interactions to co-construct enabling food policy delivery systems. The HGA is mobilised to understand the ways in which reflexive capacities, as well as co-learning, take place in the two cases and how they lay the basis of particular modes of (de)institutionalisation. Learning from the two cases’ trajectories, this paper highlights: (a) the role of key governance tensions as triggers as well as breeding grounds for reflexivity and co-learning outcomes; (b) the challenges of food movement actors to surmount or valorise key tensions in order to build accountable modes of food policy delivery through time; (c) the struggles to build legitimacy and accountability in local food movements through the development of bottom-linked organisations and governance modes.     

Implementing agenda 21 in local government: The Swedish experience

Abstract

Chapter 28 of the UNCED agreement ‘Agenda 21’ asks for implementing sustainable development at the local level of government. Sweden is amongst the fore‐running nations in having responded quickly to these demands. Virtually all of Sweden's 288 municipalities have decided to embark on the Local Agenda 21 process. In this article, the progress so far and how LA21 has been interpreted at the local level are examined. The motives behind the process, the tensions between national and local policy making, and the role of municipal networks and NGOs are analysed. Four case studies of pioneer municipalities are used to illustrate how LA21 has sometimes inspired more far‐reaching goals at the local than at the national level, and the combination of economic development and marketing with environmental policy. It remains to be seen whether the most recent national government investment programme towards local projects for sustainable development will resolve the present conflicts between national goals and local priorities.     

A stochastic approach for the operation of a wind and pumped storage plant under a deregulated environment

To improve the competiveness in the energy market, it is necessary that the wind power plants provide guaranteed power generation, although, it is not possible to forecast power availability from wind power plant accurately. This paper presents a stochastic model and solution technique for the combined operation of wind and pumped storage power plants to improve the power availability and increasing the profit considering uncertainties of wind power generation. In this model, uncertainties in wind data have been forecasted for grid connected day-ahead market using Weibull distribution model. The imbalances in the forecasted wind data and the market demand have been reduced by operating the pumped storage power plant. In this stochastic mixed integer problem, pumped storage plant can take the supply either from the grid or from the wind power plant for the pumping operation to store the energy in order to utilize this energy during peak hours for increasing the overall revenue. The reliability of the pumped storage is improved by replacing the conventional unit with the adjustable speed type pumped storage unit. In order to prove the optimality of the solution, two case studies were considered. In case study–I, scheduling is provided by operating the conventional pumped storage unit, whereas in case study–II, adjustable speed pumped storage unit has been used. It has been found that the adjustable speed pumped storage unit has further reduced the imbalance between generated power and demand. The complete approach has been formulated and implemented using AMPL software.     

Measuring sustainability performance of local food production in home gardens

The growing interests in “local food” in recent years in public discussions, research and practice highlight its significant importance as a part of overall food system. This research compares spatially local food production potential of home gardens in nine residential neighbourhood case studies with varying physical densities at a local scale using geographic information systems and mathematical methods. This paper develops a “local food energy model” for measuring sustainability potential of growing local food mainly vegetables in the home gardens. The outcomes indicate that potential of the home gardens in supplying vegetables demand as a share of total dietary energy would depend on the morphological characteristics of urban forms, total resident population, total food demand and other related factors. Local food production in the home gardens could meaningfully contribute towards building a sustainable food future.     

Evaluating an Employer Transport Plan: Effects on travel behaviour of parking charges and associated measures introduced at the University of Sheffield

Journeys to work form a significant proportion of all car journeys and employer transport plans have been advocated as a way to manage the transport needs of workers in order to contain the level of car trips and, therefore, emissions and other negative effects. A questionnaire survey and focus group interviews were used to evaluate the success of an employer transport plan implemented by the University of Sheffield in September 1997. The policy was associated with a marginal (7%) reduction in car use and promoted a limited increase in travel diversity. An objection to the principle of paying to park at work and ineligibility for a permit both deterred car use. The policy caused a re-evaluation of the journey to work. Nevertheless, a number of factors worked against switches in behaviour, particularly employees' perceptions of the university's motivation for introducing the plan and attitudes towards car use and public transport. Disincentives to car use need to be much more significant to persuade more employees to leave their car at home, and need to be tied to substantial improvements in the availability of non-car alternatives.     

Enacting food sovereignty: values and meanings in the act of domestic food production in urban Australia

This article brings to light one aspect of alternative agri-food practices by exploring the values and meanings domestic food producers associate with their actions, thereby making a small contribution to increasing understanding of the act of urban backyard food production. While Australian backyards have long been productive spaces, there has been little examination of this phenomenon in the Australian context. Limited quantitative data give some insight into the extent of domestic production, and while there is an increasing interest in certain aspects of the local food system, including community gardens and farmers markets, there is a dearth of literature that explores the contemporary act of domestic production. This work seeks to situate the act of domestic production within the broader movement calling for change within the global food system, particularly that being articulated by the food sovereignty movement. Drawing on Gibson–Graham's diverse economies framework, and through interviews with eight domestic food producers in one Australian city, this work finds that the act of growing food at home offers space for hope – where small acts can be seen as part of the broader food sovereignty movement seeking to remake our food system.