Consumer-resource body-size relationships in natural food webs

It has been suggested that differences in body size between consumer and resource species may have important implications for interaction strengths, population dynamics, and eventually food web structure, function, and evolution. Still, the general distribution of consumer-'resource body-size ratios in real ecosystems, and whether they vary systematically among habitats or broad taxonomic groups, is poorly understood. Using a unique global database on consumer and resource body sizes, we show that the mean body-size ratios of aquatic herbivorous and detritivorous consumers are several orders of magnitude larger than those of carnivorous predators. Carnivorous predator-prey body-size ratios vary across different habitats and predator and prey types (invertebrates, ectotherm, and endotherm vertebrates). Predator-prey body-size ratios are on average significantly higher (1) in freshwater habitats than in marine or terrestrial habitats, (2) for vertebrate than for invertebrate predators, and (3) for invertebrate than for ectotherm vertebrate prey. If recent studies that relate body-size ratios to interaction strengths are general, our results suggest that mean consumer-resource interaction strengths may vary systematically across different habitat categories and consumer types.     

Mercury bioaccumulation in arthropods from typical community habitats in a zinc-smelting area

This study assessed the enrichment of mercury in the food web from the different community habitats in a zinc-smelting area of China. We used a nitrogen stable isotope technique to analyze trophic level relationships among arthropods and found that the first trophic level consisted of plants in the different community habitats, the second trophic level consisted of herbivores such as locusts and grasshoppers (primary consumers), and the third trophic level included spiders and mantes (secondary consumers). Mercury enrichment in the primary consumers was not evident, but enrichment in arthropods of the third trophic level was significant. The average of enrichment coefficients in spiders and mantes was greater than 1. The δ¹⁵N values indicated that mercury concentrations accumulated from primary producers to top carnivorous arthropods increased. In this zinc-smelting area, the biological amplification of mercury in the food web is significant. It is reasonable to assume that humans, located at the top of the food chain, are exposed to biomagnified levels of mercury.     

Quantitative approaches to the analysis of stable isotope food web data

Ecologists use stable isotopes (delta13C, delta15N) to better understand food webs and explore trophic interactions in ecosystems. Traditionally, delta13C vs. delta15N bi-plots have been used to describe food web structure for a single time period or ecosystem. Comparisons of food webs across time and space are increasing, but development of statistical approaches for testing hypotheses regarding food web change has lagged behind. Here we present statistical methodologies for quantitatively comparing stable isotope food web data. We demonstrate the utility of circular statistics and hypothesis tests for quantifying directional food web differences using two case studies: an arthropod salt marsh community across a habitat gradient and a freshwater fish community from Lake Tahoe, USA, over a 120-year time period. We calculated magnitude and mean angle of change (theta) for each species in food web space using mean delta13C and delta15N of each species as the x, y coordinates. In the coastal salt marsh, arthropod consumers exhibited a significant shift toward dependence on Spartina, progressing from a habitat invaded by Phragmites to a restored Spartina habitat. In Lake Tahoe, we found that all species from the freshwater fish community shifted in the same direction in food web space toward more pelagic-based production with the introduction of nonnative Mysis relicta and onset of cultural eutrophication. Using circular statistics to quantitatively analyze stable isotope food web data, we were able to gain significant insight into patterns and changes in food web structure that were not evident from qualitative comparisons. As more ecologists incorporate a food web perspective into ecosystem analysis, these statistical tools can provide a basis for quantifying directional food web differences from standard isotope data.     

Grazer traits, competition, and carbon sources to a headwater-stream food web

We investigated the effect of grazing by a dominant invertebrate grazer (the caddisfly Glossosoma penitum) on the energy sources used by other consumers in a headwater-stream food web. Stable isotope studies in small, forested streams in northern California have shown that G. penitum larvae derive most of their carbon from algae, despite low algal standing crops. We hypothesized that the caddisfly competes with other primary consumers (including mayflies) for algal food and increases their reliance on terrestrial detritus. Because Glossosoma are abundant and defended from predators by stone cases, their consumption of algal energy may reduce its transfer up the food chain. We removed Glossosoma (natural densities >1000 caddisflies/m2) from five approximately 4 m2) stream sections during the summer of 2000 and measured responses of algae, invertebrate primary consumers, and invertebrate predators. The treatment reduced Glossosoma biomass by 80-90%. We observed a doubling in chlorophyll a per area in sections with reduced Glossosoma abundance and aggregative increases in the biomass of undefended primary consumers. Heptageniid mayfly larvae consumed more algae (as measured by stable carbon isotope ratios and gut content analysis) in caddisfly removal plots at the end of the 60-day experiment, although not after one month. We did not see isotopic evidence of increased algal carbon in invertebrate predators, however. Patterns of caddisfly and mayfly diets in the surrounding watershed suggested that mayfly diets are variable and include algae and detrital carbon in variable proportions, but scraping caddisflies consume primarily algae. Caddisfly and mayfly diets are more similar in larger, more productive streams where the mayflies assimilate more algae. Isotopic analysis, in combination with measurements of macroinvertebrate abundance and biomass in unmanipulated plots, suggested that a substantial portion of the invertebrate community (>50% of biomass) was supported, at least partially, by local algal carbon during midsummer. These data suggest that algae may be more important to community dynamics in headwater streams than their relatively low productivity would suggest. Through their high densities and relative invulnerability to predation, armored grazers may also affect community structure and flow of algal and detrital carbon in headwater streams.     

Evolution of a stream ecosystem in recently deglaciated terrain

Climate change and associated glacial recession create new stream habitat that leads to the assembly of new riverine communities through primary succession. However, there are still very few studies of the patterns and processes of community assembly during primary succession for stream ecosystems. We illustrate the rapidity with which biotic communities can colonize and establish in recently formed streams by examining Stonefly Creek in Glacier Bay, Alaska (USA), which began to emerge from a remnant glacial ice mass between 1976 and 1979. By 2002, 57 macroinvertebrate and 27 microcrustacea species had become established. Within 10 years of the stream's formation, pink salmon and Dolly Varden charr colonized, followed by other fish species, including juvenile red and silver salmon, Coast Range sculpin, and sticklebacks. Stable-isotope analyses indicate that marine-derived nitrogen from the decay of salmon carcasses was substantially assimilated within the aquatic food web by 2004. The findings from Stonefly Creek are compared with those from a long-term study of a similarly formed but older stream (12 km to the northeast) to examine possible similarities in macroinvertebrate community and biological trait composition between streams at similar stages of development. Macroinvertebrate community assembly appears to have been initially strongly deterministic owing to low water temperature associated with remnant ice masses. In contrast, microcrustacean community assembly appears to have been more stochastic. However, as stream age and water temperature increased, macroinvertebrate colonization was also more stochastic, and taxonomic similarity between Stonefly Creek and a stream at the same stage of development was <50%. However the most abundant taxa were similar, and functional diversity of the two communities was almost identical. Tolerance is suggested as the major mechanism of community assembly. The rapidity with which salmonids and invertebrate communities have become established across an entire watershed has implications for the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater habitats.     

Anthropogenic subsidies alter stream consumer-resource stoichiometry, biodiversity, and food chains.

Urbanization is dramatically changing nutrient and organic matter regimes in streams, yet the community and ecosystem implications often remain obscure. We assessed the consequences of sewage-derived particulate organic matter (SDPOM) for invertebrate community structure and function in a headwater stream. Using stable isotope analyses, we found assimilation of organic SDPOM to double community secondary production, and stoichiometric analyses revealed SDPOM enriched in phosphorus (P) to foster putatively fast-growing, P-rich consumers in the subsidized reach. This altered consumer-resource stoichiometry impacted both community structure and nutrient fluxes through the invertebrate community. Community structure shifted toward significantly reduced diversity and evenness in the subsidized reach and consequently toward shorter food chains. Our integration of ecological stoichiometry with stable isotope analyses and food web ecology expands the previous focus of traditional ecotoxicology and ecophysiology to an ecosystem-level appreciation of pollutant ecology.     

Nutrient enrichment reduces constraints on material flows in a detritus-based food web

Most aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are experiencing increased nutrient availability, which is affecting their structure and function. By altering community composition and productivity of consumers, enrichment can indirectly cause changes in the pathways and magnitude of material flows in food webs. These changes, in turn, have major consequences for material storage and cycling in the ecosystem. Understanding mechanisms and predicting consequences of nutrient-induced changes in material flows requires a quantitative food web approach that combines information on consumer energetics and consumer-resource stoichiometry. We examined effects of a whole-system experimental nutrient enrichment on the trophic basis of production and the magnitude and pathways of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) flows in a detritus-based stream food web. We compared the response of the treated stream to an adjacent reference stream throughout the study. Dietary composition and elemental flows varied considerably among invertebrate functional feeding groups. During nutrient enrichment, increased flows of leaf litter and amorphous detritus to shredders and gatherers accounted for most of the altered flows of C from basal resources to consumers. Nutrient enrichment had little effect on patterns of material flows but had large positive effects on the magnitude of C, N, and P flows to consumers (mean increase of 97% for all elements). Nutrient-specific food webs revealed similar flows of N and P to multiple functional groups despite an order of magnitude difference among groups in consumption of C. Secondary production was more strongly related to consumption of nutrients than C, and increased material flows were positively related to the degree of consumer-resource C:P and C:N imbalances. Nutrient enrichment resulted in an increased proportion of detrital C inputs consumed by primary consumers (from -15% to 35%) and a decreased proportion of invertebrate prey consumed by predators (from -80% to 55%). Our results demonstrate that nutrient enrichment of detritus-based systems may reduce stoichiometric constraints on material flows, increase the contribution of consumers to C, N, and P cycling, alter the proportion of C inputs metabolized by consumers, and potentially lead to reduced ecosystem-level storage of C.     

Predator diversity and identity drive interaction strength and trophic cascades in a food web

Declining predator diversity may drastically affect the biomass and productivity of herbivores and plants. Understanding how changes in predator diversity can propagate through food webs to alter ecosystem function is one of the most challenging ecological research topics today. We studied the effects of predator removal in a simple natural food web in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California (USA). By excluding the predators of the third trophic level of a food web in a full-factorial design, we monitored cascading effects of varying predator diversity and composition on the herbivorous beetle Chrysomela aeneicollis and the willow Salix orestera, which compose the first and second trophic levels of the food web. Decreasing predator diversity increased herbivore biomass and survivorship, and consequently increased the amount of plant biomass consumed via a trophic cascade. Despite this simple linear mean effect of diversity on the strength of the trophic cascade, we found additivity, compensation, and interference in the effects of multiple predators on herbivores and plants. Herbivore survivorship and predator-prey interaction strengths varied with predator diversity, predator identity, and the identity of coexisting predators. Additive effects of predators on herbivores and plants may have been driven by temporal niche separation, whereas compensatory effects and interference occurred among predators with a similar phenology. Together, these results suggest that while the general trends of diversity effects may appear linear and additive, other information about species identity was required to predict the effects of removing individual predators. In a community that is not temporally well-mixed, predator traits such as phenology may help predict impacts of species loss on other species. Information about predator natural history and food web structure may help explain variation in predator diversity effects on trophic cascades and ecosystem function.     

Adaptations in a hierarchical food web of southeastern Lake Michigan

Two issues in ecological network theory are: (1) how to construct an ecological network model and (2) how do entire networks (as opposed to individual species) adapt to changing conditions? We present a novel method for constructing an ecological network model for the food web of southeastern Lake Michigan (USA) and we identify changes in key system properties that are large relative to their uncertainty as this ecological network adapts from one time point to a second time point in response to multiple perturbations. To construct our food web for southeastern Lake Michigan, we followed the list of seven recommendations outlined in Cohen et al. [Cohen, J.E., et al., 1993. Improving food webs. Ecology 74, 252–258] for improving food webs. We explored two inter-related extensions of hierarchical system theory with our food web; the first one was that subsystems react to perturbations independently in the short-term and the second one was that a system's properties change at a slower rate than its subsystems’ properties. We used Shannon's equations to provide quantitative versions of the basic food web properties: number of prey, number of predators, number of feeding links, and connectance (or density). We then compared these properties between the two time-periods by developing distributions of each property for each time period that took uncertainty about the property into account. We compared these distributions, and concluded that non-overlapping distributions indicated changes in these properties that were large relative to their uncertainty. Two subsystems were identified within our food web system structure (p < 0.001). One subsystem had more non-overlapping distributions in food web properties between Time 1 and Time 2 than the other subsystem. The overall system had all overlapping distributions in food web properties between Time 1 and Time 2. These results supported both extensions of hierarchical systems theory. Interestingly, the subsystem with more non-overlapping distributions in food web properties was the subsystem that contained primarily benthic taxa, contrary to expectations that the identified major perturbations (lower phosphorous inputs and invasive species) would more greatly affect the subsystem containing primarily pelagic taxa. Future food-web research should employ rigorous statistical analysis and incorporate uncertainty in food web properties for a better understanding of how ecological networks adapt.     

Whole-system nutrient enrichment increases secondary production in a detritus-based ecosystem

Although the effects of nutrient enrichment on consumer-resource dynamics are relatively well studied in ecosystems based on living plants, little is known about the manner in which enrichment influences the dynamics and productivity of consumers and resources in detritus-based ecosystems. Because nutrients can stimulate loss of carbon at the base of detrital food webs, effects on higher consumers may be fundamentally different than what is expected for living-plant-based food webs in which nutrients typically increase basal carbon. We experimentally enriched a detritus-based headwater stream for two years to examine the effects of nutrient-induced changes at the base of the food web on higher metazoan (predominantly invertebrate) consumers. Our paired-catchment design was aimed at quantifying organic matter and invertebrate dynamics in the enriched stream and an adjacent reference stream for two years prior to enrichment and two years during enrichment. Enrichment had a strong negative effect on standing crop of leaf litter, but no apparent effect on that of fine benthic organic matter. Despite large nutrient-induced reductions in the quantity of leaf litter, invertebrate secondary production during the enrichment was the highest ever reported for headwater streams at this Long Term Ecological Research site and was 1.2-3.3 times higher than predicted based on 15 years of data from these streams. Abundance, biomass, and secondary production of invertebrate consumers increased significantly in response to enrichment, and the response was greater among taxa with larval life spans < or = 1 yr than among those with larval life spans >1 yr. Production of invertebrate predators closely tracked the increased production of their prey. The response of invertebrates was largely habitat-specific with little effect of enrichment on food webs inhabiting bedrock outcrops. Our results demonstrate that positive nutrient-induced changes to food quality likely override negative changes to food quantity for consumers during the initial years of enrichment of detritus-based stream ecosystems. Longer-term enrichment may impact consumers through eventual reductions in the quantity of detritus.     

Incorporation of plant carbon into the soil animal food web of an arable system

We used stable isotopes to examine the incorporation of plant carbon into the belowground food web of an agricultural system. Plots were established and planted with maize (Zea mays) in a rye field (Secale cereale) near G?ttingen (northern Germany) in May 1999. In October 1999, April 2000, and October 2000, meso- and macrofauna and maize and rye litter were collected in each plot and analyzed for 13C and 15N content. 15N signatures suggested that the soil animal species analyzed span three trophic levels with the trophic position of species varying little in time. The species investigated formed a continuum from primary to secondary decomposers to predators. On average, predator species differed from primary and secondary decomposers by 3.9 sigma15N suggesting that they fed on a mixed diet of both decomposer groups. The combined analysis of 13C and 15N signatures allowed us to identify links between prey and consumer species. In October 1999, shortly after maize residues had been incorporated into the plots, maize-born carbon was present in each of the animal species investigated, including top predators. The incorporation of maize carbon into the belowground food web increased during the following 12 months but the concentration of maize-born carbon never exceeded 50% in any of the species. Furthermore, the ranks of the incorporation of maize-born carbon of the species changed little. The results suggest that the belowground food web relies heavily on carbon originating from plant residues from before the recent two growing seasons. In most species the amount of maize-born carbon increased continuously; however, in some species it decreased during winter, suggesting that these species switched to a diet based more on C3 plants during winter, or predominantly metabolized carbon incorporated during the last growing season. The study documents that the combined analysis of 13C and 15N signatures in soil invertebrate species, after replacement of C3 by C4 plants, is a powerful tool to better understand the structure of the belowground food web and the flux of carbon through it.     

Carbon-based balanced trophic structure and flows in the offshore Lake Ontario food web before (1987-1991) and after (2001-2005) invasion-induced ecosystem change

Replicate mass-balanced solutions to Ecopath models describing carbon-based trophic structures and flows were developed for the Lake Ontario offshore food web before and after invasion-induced disruption. The food webs link two pathways of energy and matter flow: the grazing chain (phytoplankton-zooplankton-fish) and the microbial loop (bacteria-protozoans) and include 19 species-groups and three detrital groups. Mass-balance was achieved by using constrained optimization techniques to randomly vary initial estimates of biomass and diet composition. After the invasion, production declined for all trophic levels and species-groups except Chinook salmon. The trophic level (TL) increased for smelt, adult sculpin, adult alewife and Chinook salmon. Changes to ecotrophic efficiencies indicate a reduction in phytoplankton grazing, increased predation pressure on Mysis, adult smelt and alewife and decreased predation pressure on protozoans. Specific resource to consumer TTE changed; increasing for protozoans (8.0-11.5%), Mysis (0.6-1.0%), and Chinook salmon (1.0-2.3%) and other salmonines (0.4-0.5%) and decreasing for zooplankton (20.2-15.1%), prey-fish (9.7-8.8%), and benthos (1.7-0.6%). Direct trophic influences of recent invasive species were low. The synchrony of the decline in PP and species-group production indicates strong bottom-up influence. Mass balance required an increase of two to threefold in lower trophic level biomass and production, confirming a previously observed paradoxical deficit in lower trophic level production. Analysis of food web changes suggest hypotheses that may apply to other similar large pelagic systems including, (1) as pelagic primary productivity declines, overgrazing of zooplankton results in an increase in protozoan production and a loss of trophic transfer efficiency, (2) habitat and food web changes increased Mysis predation on Diporeia and contributed to their recent decline, and (3) production of Chinook salmon, the primary piscivore, was uncoupled from pelagic production processes. This study demonstrates the value of food web models to better understand the impact of invasive species and to develop novel hypotheses concerning trophic influences.     

Arthropod food web restoration following removal of an invasive wetland plant.

Restoration of habitats impacted by invasive plants is becoming an increasingly important tool in the management of native biodiversity, though most studies do not go beyond monitoring the abundance of particular taxonomic groups, such as the return of native vegetation. Yet, the reestablishment of trophic interactions among organisms in restored habitats is equally important if we are to monitor and understand how ecosystems recover. This study examined whether food web interactions among arthropods (as inferred by abundance of naturally occurring stable isotopes of C [delta13C] and N [delta15N]) were reestablished in the restoration of a coastal Spartina alterniflora salt marsh that had been invaded by Phragmites australis. From patterns of C and N stable isotopes we infer that trophic interactions among arthropods in the native salt marsh habitats are characterized by reliance on the dominant marsh plant Spartina as a basal resource. Herbivores such as delphacid planthoppers and mirid bugs have isotope signatures characteristic of Spartina, and predatory arthropods such as dolicopodid flies and spiders likewise have delta13C and delta15N signatures typical of Spartina-derived resources (approximately -13 per thousand and 10 per thousand, respectively). Stable isotope patterns also suggest that the invasion of Phragmites into salt marshes and displacement of Spartina significantly alter arthropod food web interactions. Arthropods in Phragmites-dominated sites have delta13C isotope values between -18 per thousand and -20 per thousand, suggesting reliance on detritus and/or benthic microalgae as basal resources and not on Phragmites, which has a delta13C approximately -26 per thousand. Since most Phragmites herbivores are either feeding internally or are rare transients from nearby Spartina, these resources do not provide significant prey resources for other arthropod consumers. Rather, predator isotope signatures in the invaded habitats indicate dependence on detritus/algae as basal resources instead of the dominant vegetation. The reestablishment of Spartina after removal of Phragmites, however, not only returned species assemblages typical of reference (uninvaded) Spartina, but stable isotope signatures suggest that the trophic interactions among the arthropods were also similar in reestablished habitats. Specifically, both herbivores and predators showed characteristic Spartina signatures, suggesting the return of the original grazer-based food web structure in the restored habitats.     

A physical-microbial food web coupled model to study the evolution of the ecological functioning of a new reservoir after its flooding (Sep,Puy de Dôme)

The aim of this paper is to understand the temporal changes in planktonic populations and to highlight some important factors that control the biological functioning and evolution of a recently flooded reservoir, the Sep reservoir (Massif Central, France). To achieve this objective, a 1D vertical coupled physical–biological model was used and developed. It couples relevant physical processes (dispersion, advection and convection) with biological processes taking into account the complexity of interactions within the microbial food web, including the conventional grazing food chain with a microbial loop.     

低山丘陵区农业景观格局对害虫-捕食性天敌食物网的影响

农业集约化导致景观破碎化、均质化程度加深.景观斑块的组成及合理布局带来的农业景观高异质性是维持区域生物多样性的关键.该文选择具有典型低山丘陵地貌的辽宁省建平县为研究区,在食物网水平上探究区域农业景观格局对生物多样性的影响.选取20个样区,在明晰区域景观特征、分析害虫-捕食性天敌食物网结构的基础上,采用回归分析和最优模型...     

Ecosystem ecology meets adaptive management: food web response to a controlled flood on the Colorado River, Glen Canyon

Large dams have been constructed on rivers to meet human demands for water, electricity, navigation, and recreation. As a consequence, flow and temperature regimes have been altered, strongly affecting river food webs and ecosystem processes. Experimental high-flow dam releases, i.e., controlled floods, have been implemented on the Colorado River, U.S.A., in an effort to reestablish pulsed flood events, redistribute sediments, improve conditions for native fishes, and increase understanding of how dam operations affect physical and biological processes. We quantified secondary production and organic matter flows in the food web below Glen Canyon dam for two years prior and one year after an experimental controlled flood in March 2008. Invertebrate biomass and secondary production declined significantly following the flood (total biomass, 55% decline; total production, 56% decline), with most of the decline driven by reductions in two nonnative invertebrate taxa, Potamopyrgus antipodarum and Gammarus lacustris. Diatoms dominated the trophic basis of invertebrate production before and after the controlled flood, and the largest organic matter flows were from diatoms to the three most productive invertebrate taxa (P. antipodarum, G. lacustris, and Tubificida). In contrast to invertebrates, production of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) increased substantially (194%) following the flood, despite the large decline in total secondary production of the invertebrate assemblage. This counterintuitive result is reconciled by a post-flood increase in production and drift concentrations of select invertebrate prey (i.e., Chironomidae and Simuliidae) that supported a large proportion of trout production but had relatively low secondary production. In addition, interaction strengths, measured as species impact values, were strongest between rainbow trout and these two taxa before and after the flood, demonstrating that the dominant consumer-resource interactions were not necessarily congruent with the dominant organic matter flows. Our study illustrates the value of detailed food web analysis for elucidating pathways by which dam management may alter production and strengths of species interactions in river food webs. We suggest that controlled floods may increase production of nonnative rainbow trout, and this information can be used to help guide future dam management decisions.     

Comparative species composition and relative abundance of decapod crustaceans in marine habitats of Panamá

The community structure of the decapod crustacean fauna of 7 tropical, shallowwater, marine habitats (sandy beaches, mangrove swamps and rocky intertidal habitats on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Panama, and Pocillopora damicornis coral habitat of the Bay of Panama) were examined and analyzed for species composition and relative abundances. Collections from the 7 habitats yielded 4361 individuals, representing 236 species. The number of species per habitat was (Pacific, Caribbean): sandy beach (16, 7); mangrove (20, 17); P. damicornis (53); rocky intertidal (78, 67). There were more species represented by more individuals in the Pacific habitats. An index of faunal similarity was calculated for each pair (Pacific-Caribbean) of habitats. This index is the number of ecologically similar congeneric species which occurred in both habitats expressed as a percentage of the total number of species present in the pair of habitats. For the sandy beach communities there were three Pacific species which were similar to three Caribbean species, a similarity of 6/23 or 26%. The index of similarity for the mangrove communities is 54% and for the rocky intertidal communities it is 37%. The P. damicornis community has affinities with the Pacific rocky intertidal community (18%), with that of the Caribbean rocky intertidal (16%) and with that of Indo-West Pacific pocilloporid corals (20%). A few specialized species dominated each of the communities. The habitats and the number of species accounting for over half of the individuals present are (Pacific, Caribbean): sandy beach (1, 1); mangrove (4, 4); P. damicornis (5); and rocky intertidal (3, 6). Most of the species in each community were represented by one or a few individuals.     

Divergent composition but similar function of soil food webs of individual plants: plant species and community effects

Soils are extremely rich in biodiversity, and soil organisms play pivotal roles in supporting terrestrial life, but the role that individual plants and plant communities play in influencing the diversity and functioning of soil food webs remains highly debated. Plants, as primary producers and providers of resources to the soil food web, are of vital importance for the composition, structure, and functioning of soil communities. However, whether natural soil food webs that are completely open to immigration and emigration differ underneath individual plants remains unknown. In a biodiversity restoration experiment we first compared the soil nematode communities of 228 individual plants belonging to eight herbaceous species. We included grass, leguminous, and non-leguminous species. Each individual plant grew intermingled with other species, but all plant species had a different nematode community. Moreover, nematode communities were more similar when plant individuals were growing in the same as compared to different plant communities, and these effects were most apparent for the groups of bacterivorous, carnivorous, and omnivorous nematodes. Subsequently, we analyzed the composition, structure, and functioning of the complete soil food webs of 58 individual plants, belonging to two of the plant species, Lotus corniculatus (Fabaceae) and Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae). We isolated and identified more than 150 taxa/groups of soil organisms. The soil community composition and structure of the entire food webs were influenced both by the species identity of the plant individual and the surrounding plant community. Unexpectedly, plant identity had the strongest effects on decomposing soil organisms, widely believed to be generalist feeders. In contrast, quantitative food web modeling showed that the composition of the plant community influenced nitrogen mineralization under individual plants, but that plant species identity did not affect nitrogen or carbon mineralization or food web stability. Hence, the composition and structure of entire soil food webs vary at the scale of individual plants and are strongly influenced by the species identity of the plant. However, the ecosystem functions these food webs provide are determined by the identity of the entire plant community.     

Urban marine ecology in southern California: the ability of riprap structures to serve as rocky intertidal habitat

Increasing human populations along marine coastlines has lead to increasing urbanization of the marine environment. Despite decades of investigations on terrestrial ecosystems, the effect of urbanization on marine life is not well understood. Riprap is the rocky rubble used to build jetties, breakwaters, and armored shorelines. Roughly 30% of the southern California shoreline supports some form of riprap, while 29% of the shoreline is natural rocky substrate. Astonishingly few studies have investigated this anthropogenic rocky habitat even though it rivals a natural habitat in area on a regional scale along a coastline that has been extensively studied. In this study, I compared the diversity and community structure of exposed rocky intertidal communities on four riprap and four natural sites in southern California. I ask the following questions: (1) does diversity or community composition differ between intertidal communities on riprap and natural rocky habitats in southern California, (2) if so, which organisms contribute to those differences, (3) which physical factors are contributing to these differences, and (4) do riprap habitats support higher abundances of invasive species than natural habitats? On average, riprap and natural rocky habitats in wave exposed environments in southern California did not differ from each other in diversity or community composition when considering the entire assemblage. However, when only mobile species were considered, they occurred in greater diversity on natural shores. These differences appear to be driven by wave exposure. The presence of invasive species was negligible in both natural and riprap habitats.     

Estimating Effects of Tidal Power Projects and Climate Change on Threatened and Endangered Marine Species and Their Food Web

Marine hydrokinetic power projects will operate as marine environments change in response to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. We considered how tidal power development and stressors resulting from climate change may affect Puget Sound species listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) and their food web. We used risk tables to assess the singular and combined effects of tidal power development and climate change. Tidal power development and climate change posed risks to ESA‐listed species, and risk increased with incorporation of the effects of these stressors on predators and prey of ESA‐listed species. In contrast, results of a model of strikes on ESA‐listed species from turbine blades suggested that few ESA‐listed species are likely to be killed by a commercial‐scale tidal turbine array. We applied scenarios to a food web model of Puget Sound to explore the effects of tidal power and climate change on ESA‐listed species using more quantitative analytical techniques. To simulate development of tidal power, we applied results of the blade strike model. To simulate environmental changes over the next 50 years, we applied scenarios of change in primary production, plankton community structure, dissolved oxygen, ocean acidification, and freshwater flooding events. No effects of tidal power development on ESA‐listed species were detected from the food web model output, but the effects of climate change on them and other members of the food web were large. Our analyses exemplify how natural resource managers might assess environmental effects of marine technologies in ways that explicitly incorporate climate change and consider multiple ESA‐listed species in the context of their ecological community. Estimación de los Efectos de Proyectos de Energía de las Mareas y el Cambio Climático sobre Especies Marinas Amenazadas y en Peligro y su Red Alimentaria