Integrated environmental assessment methods: Evolution and applications

The central objectives of the European Forum on Integrated Environmental Assessment (EFIEA) include improving the scientific quality of Integrated Environmental Assessments (IEA) as well as strengthening the interactions between science and policy making in environmental matters. This paper is intended to provide a concise assessment of the evolution of IEA methods and present it as a background to current thinking on and practice in IEA. Historical roots of IEA concepts and applications are explored. Common elements and distinctive features in recent proposals to define IEA are sorted and a liberal definition is proposed for the purposes of the present methodological study. This definition emphasizes the interdisciplinary character and environmental policy orientation of IEAs. Changes in the nature, social perception, and management of environmental problems are identified as the major factors driving methodological development in IEAs. A simple scheme is proposed to arrange the main elements of IEA: disciplinary tools, integration tools, and assessment frameworks. The role of IEAs in environmental management is examined by adopting the concept of risk management functions. Due to the varying needs for interdisciplinary research and diverging degrees of policy involvement across those functions, the potential contribution of IEAs to activities belonging to different functions also varies. The flexibility and diversity of IEAs are demonstrated by a sampler of frameworks that have been developed to address profoundly different problems and audiences. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Choosing how to choose: Comparing amalgamation methods for environmental impact assessment

Amalgamation, in which disparate impacts are combined so that alternatives can be ranked, has become an important part of many impact assessments. Such methods can help make decisions more rational by systematically combining great amounts of information into more digestible forms. They can also facilitate public participation and ease documentation of decisions. The intent of this article is to give an overview of amalgamation methods and to propose four criteria for choosing among them: the purpose to be served, ease of use, validity, and results compared to other methods. Because experiments have repeatedly shown that the method chosen can significantly affect what decision is made, EIA practitioners should place more emphasis on the last two criteria than they have in the past. Finally, recent results in psychology and management science are discussed for practitioners facing the question “how do we choose how to choose?”     

Approaches to systematic assessment of environmental exposures posed at hazardous waste sites in the developing world: the Toxic Sites Identification Program

In the developing world, environmental chemical exposures due to hazardous waste sites are poorly documented. We describe the approach taken by the Blacksmith Institute's Toxic Sites Identification Program in documenting environmental chemical exposures due to hazardous waste sites globally, identifying sites of concern and quantifying pathways, populations, and severity of exposure. A network of local environmental investigators was identified and trained to conduct hazardous waste site investigations and assessments. To date, 2,095 contaminated sites have been identified within 47 countries having an estimated population at risk of 71,500,000. Trained researchers and investigators have visited 1,400 of those sites. Heavy metals are the leading primary exposures, with water supply and ambient air being the primary routes of exposure. Even though chemical production has occurred largely in the developed world to date, many hazardous waste sites in the developing world pose significant hazards to the health of large portions of the population. Further research is needed to quantify potential health and economic consequences and identify cost-effective approaches to remediation.     

Decision support system for monitoring environmental-human interactions

The specific aim of this study is to investigate popular attitudes toward trees. The paper is involved the understanding of biophilia tendencies with respect to people's views in an urban area. Biophilia is considered as the idea insisting on the dependency of human identity on his relationship with nature. The biophilia fundamental tendencies were explored to establish a biological framework for valuing and affiliating the natural world. Accordingly, the nine tendencies i.e. utilitarian, naturalistic, ecologistic-scientific, aesthetic, symbolic, humanistic, moralistic, dominionistic, and negativistic were investigate to find out how people relate to the nature especially trees. The investigation was based on a quantitative interview which was applied to the public population in the Liverpool urban parks. Data collected from the designed questionnaire was followed by analysis of the data to identify people's attitudes towards trees. The results indicated how important the physical appeal and beauty of trees was for the people and also showed the people's emotional attachments to trees. Furthermore, a decision support model was proposed to evaluate human instincts and preferences in relation to their surrounding areas using the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP). The proposed model composed the environmental factors and the biophilia tendencies as the criteria of evaluating environmental-human interactions. A case study was then conducted in Liverpool parks to examine theses interactions. The data gathered was used as the input to the AHP model for the attribute analysis. The AHP model would enable environment managers to compose the relevant information via a link between human feelings about urban trees, and environmental factors for monitoring purposes and performance analysis.     

Comparative environmental impact and efficiency assessment of selected hydrogen production methods

The environmental impacts of various hydrogen production processes are evaluated and compared, considering several energy sources and using life cycle analysis. The results indicate that hydrogen produced by thermochemical water decomposition cycles are more environmentally benign options compared to conventional steam reforming of natural gas. The nuclear based four-step Cu–Cl cycle has the lowest global warming potential (0.559 kg CO₂-eq per kg hydrogen production), mainly because it requires the lowest quantity of energy of the considered processes. The acidification potential results show that biomass gasification has the highest impact on environment, while wind based electrolysis has the lowest. The relation is also investigated between efficiency and environmental impacts.     

Heavy metal contamination from mining sites in South Morocco: Monitoring metal content and toxicity of soil runoff and groundwater

The aim of the present work is the assessment of metal toxicity in runoff, in their contaminated soils and in the groundwater sampled from two mining areas in the region of Marrakech using a microbial bioassay MetPLATE™. This bioassay is based on the specific inhibition of the β-galactosidase enzyme of a mutant strain of Escherichia coli, by the metallic pollutants. The stream waters from all sampling stations in the two mines were all very toxic and displayed percent enzyme inhibition exceeding 87% except SWA₄ and SWB₁ stations in mine C. Their high concentrations of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) confirm the acute toxicity shown by MetPLATE. The pH of stream waters from mine B and C varied between 2.1 and 6.2 and was probably responsible for metal mobilization, suggesting a problem of acid mine drainage in these mining areas. The bioassay MetPLATE™ was also applied to mine tailings and to soils contaminated by the acidic waters. The results show that the high toxicity of these soils and tailings was mainly due to the relatively concentration of soluble Zn and Cu. The use of MetPLATE™ in groundwater toxicity testing shows that, most of the samples exhibited low metal toxicity (2.7–45.5% inhibition) except GW3 of the mine B (95.3% inhibition during the wet season and 82.9% inhibition during the dry season). This high toxicity is attributed to the higher than usual concentrations of Cu (189 μg Cu l⁻¹) and Zn (1505 μg Zn l⁻¹). These results show the potential risk of the contamination of different ecosystems situated to the vicinity of these two metalliferous sites. The general trend observed was an increase in metal toxicity measured by the MetPLATE with increasing total and mobile metal concentrations in the studied matrices. Therefore, the MetPLATE bioassay is a reliable and fast bioassay to estimate the metals toxicity in the aquatic and solids samples.     

A field test for the assessment of faecal contamination of potable water

A simple, sensitive, rapid, inexpensive paper strip impregnated with Salmonellal E. coli medium (SEM) was formulated, and placed in a test tube. When potable water of 10 ml was added to the test tube it detected the faecal contamination of water samples within 16-48 h when incubated at room temperature from 20 to 35 degrees C. The positive results were indicated when the medium turned black (hydrogen sulfide production) for the presence of Salmonella sp. and/or the formation of a red ring (free indole from tryptophan) when a few drops of Kovac's reagent was added for the presence of coliform bacteria (E. coli). More than 600 water samples were tested with the new test (SEM) and results showed 99% agreement with that of the standard most probable number (MPN) coliform test and also proved highly successful in the field when it was employed to detect both Salmonella and E. coli. Different water testing laboratories involved in a water quality monitoring programme and governmental agencies evaluated the test media and reported that the test was user friendly, reliable and simple to perform in the field and will be especially useful for screening of both urban and rural water supplies for routine monitoring of bacteriological contamination.     

A computer-based program for the assessment of water-induced contamination in irrigated lands

The non-point characteristic of agrarian contamination hinders its quantification and assignation to a specific territory. The objectives of this work were to unify methodological criteria for agro-environmental evaluation and to propose indices to quantify irrigation-induced contamination. The computer program Irrigation Land Environmental Evaluation Tool (in Spanish, EMR; http://www.jcausape.es/investigacion/EMR.htm ) was developed to evaluate the quality of irrigation and the agro-environmental impacts, based on the water, salt, and nitrate balances in the hydrological irrigation basins. The behavior of the proposed indices was analyzed using data registered in various irrigation districts in the Ebro valley (Spain). The Salt and Nitrate Contamination Indices (SCI and NCI, respectively) were based on the unitary mass of exported pollutants, corrected by the "natural and socioeconomic" conditions of the irrigation districts evaluated. SCI and NCI were related to water and nitrogen use, key factors in minimizing contamination. SCI and NCI admit a greater mass of exported pollutants in disadvantaged irrigation districts, which does not allow the exclusion of adequate management in any evaluated irrigation lands. EMR is a user-friendly tool at the service of the agro-environmental surveillance of irrigation lands.     

Comparative analysis of methods for integrating various environmental impacts as a single index in life cycle assessment

Previous studies have proposed several methods for integrating characterized environmental impacts as a single index in life cycle assessment. Each of them, however, may lead to different results. This study presents internal and external normalization methods, weighting factors proposed by panel methods, and a monetary valuation based on an endpoint life cycle impact assessment method as the integration methods. Furthermore, this study investigates the differences among the integration methods and identifies the causes of the differences through a case study in which five elementary school buildings were used. As a result, when using internal normalization with weighting factors, the weighting factors had a significant influence on the total environmental impacts whereas the normalization had little influence on the total environmental impacts. When using external normalization with weighting factors, the normalization had more significant influence on the total environmental impacts than weighing factors. Due to such differences, the ranking of the five buildings varied depending on the integration methods. The ranking calculated by the monetary valuation method was significantly different from that calculated by the normalization and weighting process. The results aid decision makers in understanding the differences among these integration methods, and, finally, help them select the method most appropriate for the goal at hand.     

建设项目环评报告书中存在的水环境监测问题及解决方法

项目建设前的环境质量(包括水环境质量)是环境影响评价的基础,预测项目建设后的环境质量是环境可行性评价结论的依据,环境质量的表征数据是通过环境监测工作取得,环境监测的规范性要求,开展监测要得到的数据必须具备"五性",才能表征某一监测地区的环境质量。由于环境评价的中介服务性,以及时间与经费的关系,对环境监测点位、频次进行压缩与省略,使得监测数据无法保障其代表性,影响建设项目环境影响报告书得出可信的结论。如何保障监测数据的质量,以最少的监测点、最恰当的监测时期、最少的监测频次,取得最有代表性的数据表征建设项目周围的环境质量,从而确保评价依靠的环境质量基础可靠,评价结论可信,是一个值得探讨的问题。     

A multi-level assessment methodology for determining the potential for groundwater contamination by pesticides

A multi-level pesticide assessment methodology has been developed to permit regulatory personnel to undertake a variety of assessments on the potential for pesticide used in agricultural areas to contaminate the groundwater regime at an increasingly detailed geographical scale of investigation. A multi-level approach accounts for a variety of assessment objectives and detail required in the assessment, the restrictions on the availability and accuracy of data, the time available to undertake the assessment, and the expertise of the decision maker. The level 1: regional scale is designed to prioritize districts having a potentially high risk for groundwater contamination from the application of a specific pesticide for a particular crop. The level 2: local scale is used to identify critical areas for groundwater contamination, at a soil polygon scale, within a district. A level 3: soil profile scale allows the user to evaluate specific factors influencing pesticide leaching and persistence, and to determine the extent and timing of leaching, through the simulation of the migration of a pesticide within a soil profile. Because of the scale of investigation, limited amount of data required, and qualitative nature of the assessment results, the level 1 and level 2 assessment are designed primarily for quick and broad guidance related to management practices. A level 3 assessment is more complex, requires considerably more data and expertise on the part of the user, and hence is designed to verify the potential for contamination identified during the level 1 or 2 assessment. The system combines environmental modelling, geographical information systems, extensive databases, data management systems, expert systems, and pesticide assessment models, to form an environmental information system for assessing the potential for pesticides to contaminate groundwater.     

Capacity strengthening for environmental assessment in Benin

For over three decades, environmental assessment (EA) has gained increasing international recognition as a means of ensuring sustainable development. In light of environmental challenges, Benin has endorsed the principle that a healthy environment is a human right. This concern is manifested by the creation of many institutions for managing environmental issues. But until today, environmental problems are still on the rise and getting worse day by day because of Benin's limited experience in the field of EA. If EA is to be perceived as an instrument of sustainable development, it is important to take into account the achievements and the needs of the country in this field; because we cannot respond properly and adequately in the field of capacity strengthening in EA without first be familiar with what exists, what is fact, and what is needed. In this study, we address and analyze the status of existing resources in the field of EA in Benin with the purpose of identifying the needs for capacity strengthening to enhance environmental assessment effectiveness in the country. The detailed presentation of the results shows that the legislative and institutional resources are available and represent a strong element in the system of environmental management in Benin. However, there is still a room for improvements towards environmental governance before it becomes a solid system of decision supporting all sectors of intervention because the effective application of those laws and texts still constitute big challenges. Below are the main reasons that explain the particular situation: majority of the laws are put in force very late or taken without implementing decree at all; the organizational capabilities have large gaps; the absence of a mechanism for evaluating the needs for strengthening capacity for EA. Recommendations pinpointed three types of needs which must be filled to enhance the effectiveness of EA in Benin: upstream needs of the structure of EA; implementation and enforcement needs; and, maintenance and efficiency needs.     

Comparison of different static methods for assessment of AMD generation potential in mining waste dumps in the Muteh Gold Mines,Iran

Acid mine drainage (AMD) gives rise to several problems in sulfide-bearing mineral deposits whether in an ore body or in the mining wastes and tailings. Hence, several methods and parameters have been proposed to evaluate the acid-producing and acid-neutralizing potential of a material. This research compares common static methods for evaluation of acid-production potential of mining wastes in the Muteh gold mines by using 62 samples taken from six waste dumps around Senjedeh and Chah-Khatoun mines. According to a detailed mineralogical study, the waste materials are composed of mica-schist and quartz veins with a high amount of pyrite and are supposed to be susceptible to acid production, and upon a rainfall, they release acid drainage. All parameters introduced in different methods were calculated and compared in this research in order to predict the acid-generating and neutralization potential, including APP, NNP, MPA, NPR, and NAGpH. Based on the analytical results and calculation of different parameters, all methods are in a general consensus that DWS-02 and DWS-03 waste dumps are acid-forming which is clearly attributed to high content of pyrite in samples. DWS-04 is considered as non-acid forming in all methods except method 8 which is uncertain about its acid-forming potential and method 7 which considers a low potential for it. DWC-01 is acid-forming based on all methods except 8, 9, 10, and 11 which are also uncertain about its potential. The methods used are not reached to a compromise on DWS-01 and DWC-02 waste dumps. It is supposed that method 7 gives the conservationist results in all cases. Method 8 is unable to decide on some cases. It is recommended to use and rely on results provided by methods 1, 2, 3, and 12 for taking decisions for further studies. Therefore, according to the static tests used, the aforementioned criteria in selected methods can be used with much confidence as a rule of thumb estimation.     

Underwater noise modelling for environmental impact assessment

Assessment of underwater noise is increasingly required by regulators of development projects in marine and freshwater habitats, and noise pollution can be a constraining factor in the consenting process. Noise levels arising from the proposed activity are modelled and the potential impact on species of interest within the affected area is then evaluated. Although there is considerable uncertainty in the relationship between noise levels and impacts on aquatic species, the science underlying noise modelling is well understood. Nevertheless, many environmental impact assessments (EIAs) do not reflect best practice, and stakeholders and decision makers in the EIA process are often unfamiliar with the concepts and terminology that are integral to interpreting noise exposure predictions. In this paper, we review the process of underwater noise modelling and explore the factors affecting predictions of noise exposure. Finally, we illustrate the consequences of errors and uncertainties in noise modelling, and discuss future research needs to reduce uncertainty in noise assessments.     

Soil criteria to protect terrestrial wildlife and open-range livestock from metal toxicity at mining sites

Thousands of hard rock mines exist in the western USA and in other parts of the world as a result of historic and current gold, silver, lead, and mercury mining. Many of these sites in the USA are on public lands. Typical mine waste associated with these sites are tailings and waste rock dumps that may be used by wildlife and open-range livestock. This report provides wildlife screening criteria levels for metals in soil and mine waste to evaluate risk and to determine the need for site-specific risk assessment, remediation, or a change in management practices. The screening levels are calculated from toxicity reference values based on maximum tolerable levels of metals in feed, on soil and plant ingestion rates, and on soil to plant uptake factors for a variety of receptors. The metals chosen for this report are common toxic metals found at mining sites: arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, and zinc. The resulting soil screening values are well above those developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. The difference in values was mainly a result of using toxicity reference values that were more specific to the receptors addressed rather than the most sensitive receptor.     

Assessing depleted uranium (DU) contamination of soil, plants and earthworms at UK weapons testing sites

Depleted uranium (DU) weapons testing programmes have been conducted at two locations within the UK. An investigation was therefore carried out to assess the extent of any environmental contamination arising from these test programmes using both alpha spectrometry and mass spectrometry techniques. Uranium isotopic signatures indicative of DU contamination were observed in soil, plant and earthworm samples collected in the immediate vicinity of test firing points and targets, but contamination was found to be localised to these areas. This paper demonstrates the superiority of the (235)U : (238)U ratio over the (234)U : (238)U ratio for identifying and quantifying DU contamination in environmental samples, and also describes the respective circumstances under which alpha spectrometry or mass spectrometry may be the more appropriate analytical tool.