Effects of Changes in Biodiversity on Ecosystem Function in Tropical Forests

Changing land use in the tropics has resulted in vast areas of damaged and degraded lands where biodiversity has been reduced. The majority of research on biodiversity has been focused on population and community dynamics and has rarely considered the ecosystem processes that are intimately related. We present a framework for examining the effects of changes in biodiversity on ecosystem function in natural, managed, and damaged tropical forests. Using a whole-ecosystem approach, the framework identifies key nutrient and energy cycling processes and critical junctures or pathways, termed interfaces, where resources are concentrated and transferred between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. Processes occurring at these interfaces, and the organisms or attributes participating in these processes, exert a strong influence on ecosystem structure. We use examples from Puerto Rico, Southern China, Dominica, and Nicaragua to illustrate how the functional diversity framework can be applied to critically examine the effects of changes in biodiversity on ecosystem function, and the relative success or failure of rehabilitation strategies. The few available data suggest that functional diversity, and not just species richness, is important in maintaining the integrity of nutrient and energy fluxes. High species richness, however, may increase ecosystem resiliency following disturbance by increasing the number of alternative pathways for the flow of resources. We suggest ways in which the framework of functional diversity can be used to design research to examine the effects of changes in biodiversity on ecosystem processes and in the design and evaluation of ecosystem management and land rehabilitation projects in the tropics.     

Using Phylogenetic Diversity Measures to Set Priorities in Conservation: an Example from Southern South America

Abstract: Phylogenetic diversity measures rank areas for biodiversity conservation priorities based on information encoded in phylogenies (cladograms). The goal of these ranks for conservation is to consider as many factors as possible that provide additional taxic information, such as taxa richness, taxa distributional patterns, area endemicity, and complementarity between areas. At present there are many measures that consider phylogenetic information, including node-based, genetic-distance, and feature-based measures. We devised a modified phylogenetic node-based index that we call "taxonomic endemicity standardized weight," which considers not only the taxonomic distinctness of the taxa that inhabit a given area but their endemicity as well. Once the standardized weight of the taxonomic endemicity identifies the area of highest priority, complementarity can be used to identify the second area and so on. We used this node-based index to rank priority areas for conservation in southern South America, and we compared the results of our rankings to results based on other node-based indexes. Our index identified Santiago district, in Central Chile province, as the highest priority area for conservation, followed by Maule, Malvinas, and districts of Subantarctic province. Malvinas exhibits greater complementarity relative to Santiago than Maule does, however, so Malvinas is ranked second in priority. Indexes based on phylogenetic information measure the evolutionary component of biodiversity and allow one to identify areas that will ensure the preservation of evolutionary potential and phylogenetically rare taxa. The modified index we propose is sensitive to taxic distinctness and endemicity as well and allows information from diverse taxa to be combined (i.e., different cladograms). The use of complementarity allows for preservation of the maximum quantity of taxa in a minimal number of protected areas.     

Prioritizing Conservation Effort through the Use of Biological Soil Crusts as Ecosystem Function Indicators in an Arid Region

Abstract: Conservation prioritization usually focuses on conservation of rare species or biodiversity, rather than ecological processes. This is partially due to a lack of informative indicators of ecosystem function. Biological soil crusts (BSCs) trap and retain soil and water resources in arid ecosystems and function as major carbon and nitrogen fixers; thus, they may be informative indicators of ecosystem function. We created spatial models of multiple indicators of the diversity and function of BSCs (species richness, evenness, functional diversity, functional redundancy, number of rare species, number of habitat specialists, nitrogen and carbon fixation indices, soil stabilization, and surface roughening) for the 800,000‐ha Grand Staircase‐Escalante National Monument (Utah, U.S.A.). We then combined the indicators into a single BSC function map and a single BSC biodiversity map (2 alternative types of conservation value) with an unweighted averaging procedure and a weighted procedure derived from validations performance. We also modeled potential degradation with data from a rangeland assessment survey. To determine which areas on the landscape were the highest conservation priorities, we overlaid the function‐ and diversity‐based conservation‐value layers on the potential degradation layer. Different methods for ascribing conservation‐value and conservation‐priority layers all yielded strikingly similar results (r= 0.89–0.99), which suggests that in this case biodiversity and function can be conserved simultaneously. We believe BSCs can be used as indicators of ecosystem function in concert with other indicators (such as plant‐community properties) and that such information can be used to prioritize conservation effort in drylands.     

Spatial mismatch between wild bee diversity hotspots and protected areas

Wild bees are critical for multiple ecosystem functions but are currently threatened. Understanding the determinants of the spatial distribution of wild bee diversity is a major research gap for their conservation. We modeled wild bee α and β taxonomic and functional diversity in Switzerland to uncover countrywide diversity patterns and determine the extent to which they provide complementary information, assess the importance of the different drivers structuring wild bee diversity, identify hotspots of wild bee diversity, and determine the overlap between diversity hotspots and the network of protected areas. We used site-level occurrence and trait data from 547 wild bee species across 3343 plots and calculated community attributes, including taxonomic diversity metrics, community mean trait values, and functional diversity metrics. We modeled their distribution with predictors describing gradients of climate, resource availability (vegetation), and anthropogenic influence (i.e., land-use types and beekeeping intensity). Wild bee diversity changed along gradients of climate and resource availability; high-elevation areas had lower functional and taxonomic α diversity, and xeric areas harbored more diverse bee communities. Functional and taxonomic β diversities diverged from this pattern, with high elevations hosting unique species and trait combinations. The proportion of diversity hotspots included in protected areas depended on the biodiversity facet, but most diversity hotspots occurred in unprotected land. Climate and resource availability gradients drove spatial patterns of wild bee diversity, resulting in lower overall diversity at higher elevations, but simultaneously greater taxonomic and functional uniqueness. This spatial mismatch among distinct biodiversity facets and the degree of overlap with protected areas is a challenge to wild bee conservation, especially in the face of global change, and calls for better integrating unprotected land. The application of spatial predictive models represents a valuable tool to aid the future development of protected areas and achieve wild bee conservation goals.     

Biotic homogenization and differentiation of plant communities in tropical and subtropical forests

Anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity can lead to biotic homogenization (BH) and biotic differentiation (BD). BH is a process of increasing similarity in community composition (including taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic components), whereas BD is a process of decreasing similarity over space and time. Here, we conducted a systematic review of BH and BD in plant communities in tropical and subtropical forests to identify trends and knowledge gaps. Our bibliometric search in the Web of Science returned 1989 papers, of which 151 matched our criteria and were included in the analysis. The Neotropical region had the largest number of articles, and Brazil was the most represented country with 92 studies. Regarding the type of change, homogenization was more frequent than differentiation (noted in 69.6% of publications). The taxonomic diversity component was measured more often than functional and phylogenetic diversity components. Most studies (75.6%) assessed homogenization and differentiation based on a single observation in time; as opposed to few studies that monitored plant community over multiple years. Forest fragmentation was cited as the main determinant of homogenization and differentiation processes (57.2% of articles). Our results highlight the importance of evaluating community composition over time and more than taxonomic components (i.e., functional and phylogenetic) to advance understanding of homogenization and differentiation. Both processes were scale dependent and not mutually exclusive. As such, future research should consider differentiation as a potential transition phase to homogenization and that potential differences in both processes may depend on the spatial and temporal scale adopted. Understanding the complexity and causes of homogenization and differentiation is essential for biodiversity conservation in a world increasingly affected by anthropogenic disturbances.     

A link between ecological diversity indices and measures of biodiversity

The practice of environmental planning and protection frequently necessitates the quantification of ecological diversity. Traditional ‘ecological diversity indices’ are based on the abundances of species present. However, such indices are insensitive to taxonomic or similar differences. With equal species abundances they measure the species richness (species number) only. Conversely, so-called ‘biodiversity indices’ are based on species differences, but are insensitive to the abundance conditions. The quadratic entropy index is the only ecological diversity index, the value of which reflects both the differences ‘and’ abundances of the species. When a species list is given without abundance data, then, using the quadratic entropy index and postulating equal abundances, one gets the only biodiversity index derived from a traditional ecological index of diversity. Its extensive form is identical with the sum of differences or distances between the species present. This index trivially satisfies set monotonicity, an important property for biodiversity indices.     

Threatened Status, Rarity, and Diversity as Alternative Selection Measures for Protected Areas: A Test Using Afrotropical Antelopes

A major aim of conservation today is the maintenance of biodiversity. Practically, this pursuit might involve protecting a representative sample of the current biotic diversity (where diversity can have a variety of different meanings as in Vane-Wright et al. 1991), safeguarding species with traits that may be correlated with susceptibility to extinction (see International Council for Bird Preservation 1992), or protecting those species that are currently categorized as under short-term threat of extinction. Priority areas for conservation may vary, however, depending on which of these three approaches is taken. We investigated the designation of priority areas using these different approaches for Afrotropical antelope. Sites were selected on the basis of (1) biotic diversity—simple species richness and taxonomic diversity; (2) uniqueness of the fauna relative to other sites—how geographically restricted the component species were; and (3) degree of endangerment of the fauna. When insufficient sites to represent all the species could be selected, there was little agreement between the priority sites selected using the different methods. Sites selected by each approach were also generally poor at representing the diversity components ranked highly by other approaches. Also, many of the species were represented in only one site in the selected network, which on its own probably does not represent a viable population for the species. Therefore, it is important that the precise aims and consequences of any selection procedure be understood. A combination of different approaches, emphasizing different aspects of biodiversity and implemented sequentially, may be the best compromise for preserving a full range of biotic diversity.     

溧阳地区森林景观的生态系统多样性研究

根据历史数据计算了溧阳地区森林景观变化过程中的生态系统多样性指数值,分析了其发展趋势,并结合其他相关资料分析区域森林生态系统多样性的变化,及其与森林经营的经济效果间的关系。     

Boosting freshwater fish conservation with high-resolution distribution mapping across a large territory

The lack of high-resolution distribution maps for freshwater species across large extents fundamentally challenges biodiversity conservation worldwide. We devised a simple framework to delineate the distributions of freshwater fishes in a high-resolution drainage map based on stacked species distribution models and expert information. We applied this framework to the entire Chinese freshwater fish fauna (>1600 species) to examine high-resolution biodiversity patterns and reveal potential conflicts between freshwater biodiversity and anthropogenic disturbances. The correlations between spatial patterns of biodiversity facets (species richness, endemicity, and phylogenetic diversity) were all significant (r = 0.43–0.98, p < 0.001). Areas with high values of different biodiversity facets overlapped with anthropogenic disturbances. Existing protected areas (PAs), covering 22% of China's territory, protected 25–29% of fish habitats, 16–23% of species, and 30–31% of priority conservation areas. Moreover, 6–21% of the species were completely unprotected. These results suggest the need for extending the network of PAs to ensure the conservation of China's freshwater fishes and the goods and services they provide. Specifically, middle to low reaches of large rivers and their associated lakes from northeast to southwest China hosted the most diverse species assemblages and thus should be the target of future expansions of the network of PAs. More generally, our framework, which can be used to draw high-resolution freshwater biodiversity maps combining species occurrence data and expert knowledge on species distribution, provides an efficient way to design PAs regardless of the ecosystem, taxonomic group, or region considered.     

Selection of Multiple Umbrella Species for Functional and Taxonomic Diversity to Represent Urban Biodiversity

Surrogates, such as umbrella species, are commonly used to reduce the complexity of quantifying biodiversity for conservation purposes. The presence of umbrella species is often indicative of high taxonomic diversity; however, functional diversity is now recognized as an important metric for biodiversity and thus should be considered when choosing umbrella species. We identified umbrella species associated with high taxonomic and functional biodiversity in urban areas in Switzerland. We analyzed 39,752 individuals of 574 animal species from 96 study plots and 1397 presences of 262 plant species from 58 plots. Thirty‐one biodiversity measures of 7 taxonomic groups (plants, spiders, bees, ground beetles, lady bugs, weevils and birds) were included in within‐ and across‐taxa analyses. Sixteen measures were taxonomical (species richness and species diversity), whereas 15 were functional (species traits including mobility, resource use, and reproduction). We used indicator value analysis to identify umbrella species associated with single or multiple biodiversity measures. Many umbrella species were indicators of high biodiversity within their own taxonomic group (from 33.3% in weevils to 93.8% in birds), to a lesser extent they were indicators across taxa. Principal component analysis revealed that umbrella species for multiple measures of biodiversity represented different aspects of biodiversity, especially with respect to measures of taxonomic and functional diversity. Thus, even umbrella species for multiple measures of biodiversity were complementary in the biodiversity aspects they represented. Thus, the choice of umbrella species based solely on taxonomic diversity is questionable and may not represent biodiversity comprehensively. Our results suggest that, depending on conservation priorities, managers should choose multiple and complementary umbrella species to assess the state of biodiversity. Selección de Múltiples Especies Paraguas para la Diversidad Funcional y Taxonómica para Representar la Biodiversidad Urbana     

Amazonian deforestation and soil biodiversity

Clearance and perturbation of Amazonian forests are one of the greatest threats to tropical biodiversity conservation of our times. A better understanding of how soil communities respond to Amazonian deforestation is crucially needed to inform policy interventions that effectively protect biodiversity and the essential ecosystem services it provides. We assessed the impact of deforestation and ecosystem conversion to arable land on Amazonian soil biodiversity through a meta-analysis. We analyzed 274 pairwise comparisons of soil biodiversity in Amazonian primary forests and sites under different stages of deforestation and land-use conversion: disturbed (wildfire and selective logging) and slash-and-burnt forests, pastures, and cropping systems. Overall, 60% and 51% of responses of soil macrofauna and microbial community attributes (i.e., abundance, biomass, richness, and diversity indexes) to deforestation were negative, respectively. We found few studies on mesofauna (e.g., microarthropods) and microfauna (e.g., protozoa and nematodes), so those groups could not be analyzed. Macrofauna abundance and biomass were more vulnerable to the displacement of forests by pastures than by agricultural fields, whereas microbes showed the opposite pattern. Effects of Amazonian deforestation on macrofauna were more detrimental at sites with mean annual precipitation >1900 mm, and higher losses of microbes occurred in highly acidic soils (pH < 4.5). Limited geographic coverage, omission of meso- and microfauna, and low taxonomic resolution were main factors impairing generalizations from the data set. Few studies assessed the impacts of within-forest disturbance (wildfires and selective logging) on soil species in Amazonia, where logging operations rapidly expand across public lands and more frequent severe dry seasons are increasing the prevalence of wildfires.     

植物多样性对土壤微生物的影响

生物多样性强烈地影响生态系统的过程.生态系统过程的变化可导致生物多样性衰减并因此导致生态系统功能衰退.植物种丰度和植物功能多样性对土壤细菌群落的代谢活性和代谢多样性有成正比的影响.土壤细菌的代谢活性和代谢多样性随植物种数量的对数和植物功能组的数量而直线上升.其原因可能是由植被流入土壤的物质和能量的多样性和数量的增加,也可能是由土壤动物区系起作用的土壤微生境的多样性的增加造成的.由于植物多样性的丧失所引起的植物生物量的减少对分解者群落有强烈的影响微生物生物量将可能减少,因为在大多数陆地生态系统中,有机碳源限制着土壤微生物的活性.     

Diversity Relationships among Taxonomic Groups in Recovering and Restored Forests

Abstract:  Our objective was to reexamine the definition and use of surrogates in biodiversity studies of disturbed ecological communities. To this end, we examined diversity and community structure in recovering (pollution damaged) and restored (via liming, fertilizing, seeding, and planting) forests in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence zone near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. The relationships among taxonomic groups were determined using correlations between Shannon diversity and species richness. We used correspondence analysis to quantify the contribution of taxonomic groups to diversity and community structure. We detected useful surrogates in the naturally recovering forests but not in restored forests. In the former, vascular plant diversity was significantly correlated with nonvascular plant diversity and reflected community structure in the total plant community. Our results suggest that it may be important to restore and conserve diversity relationships rather than simply diversity levels because the relationships may be better indicators of ecosystem health or function.     

Conserving alpha and beta diversity in wood-production landscapes

International demand for wood and other forest products continues to grow rapidly, and uncertainties remain about how animal communities will respond to intensifying resource extraction associated with woody bioenergy production. We examined changes in alpha and beta diversity of bats, bees, birds, and reptiles across wood production landscapes in the southeastern United States, a biodiversity hotspot that is one of the principal sources of woody biomass globally. We sampled across a spatial gradient of paired forest land-uses (representing pre and postharvest) that allowed us to evaluate biological community changes resulting from several types of biomass harvest. Short-rotation practices and residue removal following clearcuts were associated with reduced alpha diversity (−14.1 and −13.9 species, respectively) and lower beta diversity (i.e., Jaccard dissimilarity) between land-use pairs (0.46 and 0.50, respectively), whereas midrotation thinning increased alpha (+3.5 species) and beta diversity (0.59). Over the course of a stand rotation in a single location, biomass harvesting generally led to less biodiversity. Cross-taxa responses to resource extraction were poorly predicted by alpha diversity: correlations in responses between taxonomic groups were highly variable (−0.2 to 0.4) with large uncertainties. In contrast, beta diversity patterns were highly consistent and predictable across taxa, where correlations in responses between taxonomic groups were all positive (0.05–0.4) with more narrow uncertainties. Beta diversity may, therefore, be a more reliable and information-rich indicator than alpha diversity in understanding animal community response to landscape change. Patterns in beta diversity were primarily driven by turnover instead of species loss or gain, indicating that wood extraction generates habitats that support different biological communities.     

湿地鸟类多样性及其环境影响因子的研究进展

湿地鸟类在能量转换和维护生态系统的稳定性方面起着举足轻重的作用，同时也是监测、评价湿地生态环境极其敏感的指标．本文从物种多样性、遗传多样性和生态系统多样性三个方面分析了湿地鸟类多样性．总结了环境因子对湿地鸟类多样性的影响，最后对湿地鸟类多样性的研究提出展望，为更好地保护湿地鸟类资源及生态环境提供科学依据．     

Effectiveness of protected areas for vertebrates based on taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity

Establishing protected areas is the primary goal and tool for preventing irreversible biodiversity loss. However, the effectiveness of protected areas that target specific species has been questioned for some time because targeting key species for conservation may impair the integral regional pool of species diversity and phylogenetic and functional diversity are seldom considered. We assessed the efficacy of protected areas in China for the conservation of phylogenetic diversity based on the ranges and phylogenies of 2279 terrestrial vertebrates. Phylogenetic and taxonomic diversity were strongly and positively correlated, and only 12.1–43.8% of priority conservation areas are currently protected. However, the patterns and coverage of phylogenetic diversity were affected when weighted by species richness. These results indicated that in China, protected areas targeting high species richness protected phylogenetic diversity well overall but failed to do so in some regions with more unique or threatened communities (e.g., coastal areas of eastern China, where severely threatened avian communities were less protected). Our results suggest that the current distribution of protected areas could be improved, although most protected areas protect both taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity.     

Rare Species and Ecosystem Functioning

Abstract:  The role of diversity in the maintenance of ecosystems has been studied widely in the past decade. By correlating richness and diversity with basic ecosystem processes, these investigations lend support to the hypothesis that species diversity significantly influences ecosystem functioning and, in turn, provide support for the conservation of biodiversity. Nonetheless, the majority of these investigations demonstrate that conservation of a relatively small number of generally dominant species is sufficient to maintain most processes. Indeed, there is remarkably little evidence to support the contention that less common species, those likely of highest conservation concern, are important in the maintenance of ecosystem functioning. Here we summarize studies, most employing alternative methodological strategies, wherein less common and rare species are demonstrated to make significant contributions to ecosystem functioning. Evidence exists among studies of keystone species, aggregate effects of less common species, and species turnover. Our findings suggest that (1) less common species can make significant ecosystem contributions; (2) further investigation into the effects of rare and less common species on ecosystem maintenance is sorely needed; (3) further investigation should embrace a variety of approaches; and (4) until further research is conducted a prudent conservation approach is warranted wherein the contribution of less common species to ecosystem functioning is assumed.     

Coral identity underpins architectural complexity on Caribbean reefs

The architectural complexity of ecosystems can greatly influence their capacity to support biodiversity and deliver ecosystem services. Understanding the components underlying this complexity can aid the development of effective strategies for ecosystem conservation. Caribbean coral reefs support and protect millions of livelihoods, but recent anthropogenic change is shifting communities toward reefs dominated by stress-resistant coral species, which are often less architecturally complex. With the regionwide decline in reef fish abundance, it is becoming increasingly important to understand changes in coral reef community structure and function. We quantify the influence of coral composition, diversity, and morpho-functional traits on the architectural complexity of reefs across 91 sites at Cozumel, Mexico. Although reef architectural complexity increases with coral cover and species richness, it is highest on sites that are low in taxonomic evenness and dominated by morpho-functionally important, reef-building coral genera, particularly Montastraea. Sites with similar coral community composition also tend to occur on reefs with very similar architectural complexity, suggesting that reef structure tends to be determined by the same key species across sites. Our findings provide support for prioritizing and protecting particular reef types, especially those dominated by key reef-building corals, in order to enhance reef complexity.     

Metrics for quantifying how much different threats contribute to red lists of species and ecosystems

Red lists are a crucial tool for the management of threatened species and ecosystems. Among the information red lists provide, the threats affecting the listed species or ecosystem, such as pollution or hunting, are of special relevance. This information can be used to quantify the relative contribution of different threat factors to biodiversity loss by disaggregating the cumulative extinction risk across species into components that can be attributed to certain threats. We devised and compared 3 metrics that accomplish this and may be used as indicators. The first metric calculates the portion of the temporal change in red list index (RLI) values that is caused by each threat. The second metric attributes the deviation of an RLI value from its reference value to different threats. The third metric uses extinction probabilities that are inferred from red list categories to estimate the contribution of a threat to the expected loss of species or ecosystems within 50 years. We used data from Norwegian Red Lists to test and evaluate these metrics. The first metric captured only a minor portion of the biodiversity loss caused by threats because it ignores species whose red list category does not change. Management authorities will often be interested in the contribution of a given threat to the total deviation from the optimal state. This was measured by the remaining metrics. The second metric was best suited for comparisons across countries or taxonomic groups. The third metric conveyed the same information but uses numbers of species or ecosystem as its unit, which is likely more intuitive to lay people and may be preferred when communicating with stakeholders or the general public.