The effect of estimated PAR uncertainties on the physiological processes of biosphere models

Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) energy reaching on the vegetated surface is a key determinant of plant physiological processes. Most of biosphere or crop models use the ratio of PAR to incoming solar radiation (R_s), PAR/R_s, to convert R_s into PAR in order to reduce weather data-input requirements. Several existing models simply specify a constant ratio, PAR/R_s = 0.5. However, some field experiments have reported that the ratio PAR/R_s may not be constant. Previous empirical equations of PAR/R_s were derived based on the data of monthly or daily timescales collected from only a few measurement sites, hence they may not be appropriate to be used in current global biosphere models usually with hourly simulation time steps. Here, we represent the exponential correlation between PAR/R_s and sky clearness index (0-1) using hourly data from 54 Ameriflux measurement sites. It is found that PAR/R_s increases up to 0.6 in cloudy conditions when the clearness index (CI) is below ∼0.2, whereas it is nearly constant at ∼0.42 when CI is above 0.2. When the identified empirical equation is used in the model simulation, it results in −4 to 2% difference in the stomatal conductance compared to that using the constant ratio PAR/R_s = 0.5.     

Data assimilation in a simple marine ecosystem model based on spatial biological parameterizations

Assuming that a set of constant parameters fits for marine ecosystem modeling and parameter estimation studies on large space scales is questionable since ecosystem types spanning long distances are quite different. In this study, SeaWiFS chlorophyll-a data are assimilated into a simple NPZD model by the adjoint method in a climatological physical environment provided by FOAM. To improve the assimilation results, different spatial parameterization schemes are utilized. The results show that the values of the selected sensitive parameters are spatially variable and the application of spatial parameterizations can improve the assimilation results significantly.     

紫外线B对海洋生态系统的影响

近年来随着臭氧损失现象日益严重，到达地球表面的紫外线B辐射不断加强，海洋生态系统受到了前所未有的威胁。UV-B的增强改变了生物体赖以生存的水体环境，影响了浮游植物对营养盐的吸收同化，抑制了浮游植物的光合作用，从而减少了海洋对CO2的吸收能力，其结果直接增加了温室效应。同时UV-B也直接影响生态系统食物链的各个营养级，伤害海洋病毒、细菌和浮游植物，降低浮游动物和仔稚鱼的成活率，进而影响到整个海洋生态系统的结构和功能。     

EcoTroph: Modelling marine ecosystem functioning and impact of fishing

EcoTroph (ET) is a model articulated around the idea that the functioning of aquatic ecosystems may be viewed as a biomass flow moving from lower to higher trophic levels, due to predation and ontogenetic processes. Thus, we show that the ecosystem biomass present at a given trophic level may be estimated from two simple equations, one describing biomass flow, the other their kinetics (which quantifies the velocity of biomass transfers towards top predators). The flow kinetic of prey partly depends on the abundance of their predators, and a top-down equation expressing this is included in the model. Based on these relationships, we simulated the impact on a virtual ecosystem of various exploitation patterns. Specifically, we show that the EcoTroph approach is able to mimic the effects of increased fishing effort on ecosystem biomass expected from theory. Particularly, the model exhibits complex patterns observed in field data, notably cascading effects and ‘fishing down the food web’. EcoTroph also provides diagnostic tools for examining the relationships between catch and fishing effort at the ecosystem scale and the effects of strong top-down controls and fast-flow kinetics on ecosystems resilience. Finally, a dynamic version of the model is derived from the steady-state version, thus allowing simulations of time series of ecosystem biomass and catches. Using this dynamic model, we explore the propagation of environmental variability in the food web, and illustrated how exploitation can induce a decrease of ecosystem stability. The potential for applying EcoTroph to specific ecosystems, based on field data, and similarities between EcoTroph and Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) are finally discussed.     

A note on the sufficiency of low resolution ecosystem models

Analysis of a system of non-linear differential equations illustrates the effects of interactions between biotic and abiotic components of a complex aquatic ecosystem model. A stochastic analysis shows that the variance of the abiotic variables is related in a simple manner to the autocorrelation function of the biotic variables. The results suggest that for oligotrophic and eutrophic conditions, relatively simple ecosystem models may be sufficient for studies of an aquatic environment. Under mesotrophic conditions, the high state variable resolution of a complex model may be necessary.     

村落生态系统分布特征和模式的探讨

村落生态系统的分布是地表突出和普遍的现象。本文概括总结了区域性村落生态系统分布的一般性原则，其分布特征表现为景观性、分散集聚性、动态迁移性、梯度性、趋适性、界限性以及人文性等各个方面；对诸如平原、山区、湖区、盆地、丘陵台地、岛屿以及过渡区等各种地貌类型区提出相应的理论分布模式。     

Impact of aquacultures on the marine ecosystem: Modelling benthic carbon loading over variable depth

In order to be used within Environmental Impact Assessment study, we have developed a three-dimensional particle tracking model for prediction of benthic carbon loading (BCL) caused by fish farms. The model is based on stochastic differential equations for particle transport consistent with the well-known semi-empirical advection/diffusion equation. It requires only easily obtainable input data in the form of measured current record, the source location and a specification of local bathymetry. The model accounts for advection by long-term residual and tidal currents, turbulent diffusion, realistic bathymetry and variations in daily (monthly or yearly) emissions from fish farm.Here, we concentrate on the changes in sedimentation pattern caused by various bathymetric shapes. Examination of idealized cases reveals where and why we can expect the worst impact on benthic communities. For future reference, these results will be included into guidelines for fish farming.     

Bridging biogeochemical and food web models for an End-to-End representation of marine ecosystem dynamics: The Venice lagoon case study

The simultaneous accounting of effects of natural and anthropogenic changes within a common framework calls for the development of new comprehensive tools capable of integrating biological processes that span a huge range of scales, from viruses to fishes, in addition to their interactions with physical–chemical environmental properties, i.e. End-to-End models.     

Which forcing factors fit? Using ecosystem models to investigate the relative influence of fishing and changes in primary productivity on the dynamics of marine ecosystems

Fishing mortality and primary production (or proxy for) were used to drive the dynamics of fish assemblages in 9 trophodynamic models of contrasting marine ecosystems. Historical trends in abundance were reconstructed by fitting model predictions to observations from stock assessments and fisheries independent survey data. The model fitting exercise derives values for otherwise unknown parameters that specify the relative strength of trophic interactions and, in some instances, a time series anomaly for changes in primary production. We measured how much better or worse were model predictions when bottom-up forcing by primary production were added to top-down forcing by fishing. Searching for cross system patterns, the relative contribution of fishing and changes in primary production, mediated through trophic interactions, are evaluated for the ecosystems as a whole and for selected similar species in different ecosystems. The analysis provides a simple qualitative way to explain which forcing factors have most influence on modeled dynamics. Both fishing and primary production forcing were required to obtain the best model fits to data. Fishing effects more strongly influenced 6 of 9 of the ecosystems, but primary production was more often found to be the main factor influencing the selected pelagic and demersal fish stock trends. Examination of sensitivity to ecological and model parameters suggests that the results are the product of complex food-web interactions rather than simple deterministic responses of the models.     

基于生态系统管理的湿地概念生态模型研究

湿地是地球上的一种重要生态系统,基于生态系统管理理念,进行湿地保护与管理,既是湿地科学发展的必然结果.也是当前湿地保护与管理的客观需求.湿地生态模型是以湿地生态系统作为研究对象的模型,是对湿地生态系统组成、结构、过程和功能进行简化、类比或抽象,是用来反映湿地生态系统各种过程和关系的定性或定量化工具.湿地概念生态模型是各类湿地生态模型中最基本的类型,是对湿地生态系统组成及其相互关系的一种简约的定性表达,特别是指人类活动影响下湿地生态系统因子变化及其相互关系的概念性表达.湿地概念生态模型构建的主要目的是旨在识别人类活动对湿地生态系统的驱动与胁迫,这些驱动与胁迫产生的一系列生态效应,以及湿地生态系统对此所表现出来的特征.湿地生态系统是一个多层次、多因子组成的,结构复杂、功能多样、具有多向反馈和调节机制的复杂大系统或巨系统.影响系统状态或驱动系统变化的因子众多,既有来自系统内部的、也有来自系统外部的,它们对系统造成的影响往往具有联动关系和因果效应.湿地概念生态模型就是在生态系统管理理论指导下,将这些系统因子及其关系抽象并提取出来,以"驱动-胁迫-效应-表征"为主线,判断系统变化与演化背后存在的因果关系,构建能够反映系统变化与演化特征和规律的结构性关系网络模型.湿地概念生态模型研究的意义在于在科学与决策之间架起一座桥梁,为实施湿地生态保护与管理提供指导,同时为建立湿地数量化模型奠定基础.     

Allozyme and physiological variation in the scallop Placopecten magellanicus and a general model for the effects of heterozygosity on fitness in marine molluscs

Heterozygosity and growth rate have been correlated in many molluscs, although the phenomenon is not universal. Enhanced growth of heterozygous molluscs has been attributed to lower energetic requirements for basal metabolism. We have investigated heterozygote deficiency, and the correlation between single-locus and multiple-locus heterozygosity and phenotype in juveniles of the scallop Placopecten magellanicus (Gmelin). Six samples were collected between 22 November 1984 and 11 December 1985 at Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick, Canada. On average, heterozygote deficiency was small, although somewhat higher at the octopine dehydrogenase (Odh) locus, and decreased with age. No correlation was observed between genotype and growth rate. This result and published records indicate that allozyme heterozygosity of pectinids does not influence growth to the same degree as in other bivalves. However, we have observed in P. magellanicus a correlation between allozyme heterozygosity and octopine accumulation, a trait that relates to functional anaerobiosis, and may be related to the scallop's scope for movement. We combine these results and results from the literature into a model that relates the hypothesis of associative overdominance (at the population genetics level) with the hypothesis of energetic efficiency (at the physiological level). The model assumes that energy savings attributed to heterozygosity are used to maximize fitness. In freely moving molluscs this results in enhanced activity (such as searching for prey or swimming away from a predator), and in sessile molluscs either in enhanced somatic growth in juveniles or gonadal growth in adults.     

Reproduction on the edge: large-scale patterns of individual performance in a marine invertebrate

Reproductive output is a central attribute of life history, providing a measure of individual and population performance. The fields of ecology, biogeography, and evolutionary biology take disparate approaches in addressing spatial variation in reproduction, and thus we lack clear predictions for how reproductive output should vary geographically. We empirically investigate these contrasting theoretical approaches by determining geographic patterns in reproductive output for intertidal populations of the purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, at 15 sites spanning a large geographic distance (9 degrees span of latitude) from central California, USA, to Baja California, Mexico. Contrary to predictions from biogeography, some of the highest values of reproductive output are at sites near the species' southern range boundary. Additionally, sea urchins do not exhibit a latitudinal gradient in reproduction, but rather show considerable mesoscale variation in reproductive output. Spatial analyses reveal that this variation is correlated with coastal topographic features that are known to influence the pattern of nearshore nutrient flux and circulation. We hypothesize that urchins' reproductive output may be driven by the spatial distribution of their food supply, drift macroalgae, the abundance of which is influenced by both nutrient supply and alongshore transport processes that are coupled to topographic features. Large-scale studies such as this provide valuable insight into the causes of species' range limits, population connectivity, habitat reserve design, and forecasting the effects of climate change on species' distributions.     

Nitrogen fixation associated with the cyanobacterial mat of a marine laminated microbial ecosystem

The nitrogenase activity in the cyanobacterial mat of a laminated microbial ecosystem was investigated by the acetylene reduction method. Measurements under several conditions such as light and dark, aerobic and anaerobic and by inhibiting photosystem II by 10^-5 M DCMU showed the nitrogenase activity to be light stimulated and to some degree inhibited by oxygen. An appreciable amount of activity was also present under complete aerobic conditions. We estimated 8 to 15 kg N fixed per hectare per year for that part of the intertidal flat supporting growth of cyanobacteria. By measuring a vertical sediment profile, nitrogenase was shown to be associated with the cyanobacterial mat. Diurnal measurements of nitrogenase showed two activity peaks, one at sunrise and one at sunset. Following population dynamics in the cyanobacterial mat showed Microcoleus sp., Oscillatoria spp., Spirulina sp., Gloeocapsa sp. and sometimes Merismopedia sp. to be present. During four years of observations we never found any heterocystous cyanobacteria. Non-heterocystous cyanobacteria apparently play an important role in nitrogen fixation in this marine intertidal environment.     

Modelling of matter cycle in a mesotrophic bog ecosystem II. Dynamic model and ecological succession

Based upon the the results of static environ analysis of the organic matter cycle through the ecosystem, a number of dynamic models are developed, in this second part, for the matter and nitrogen cycles. Probable outcomes of ecological succession are obtained within the framework of the dynamic model without using the ergodic hypothesis that is implicitly adopted in ecological studies. The dynamics of both stocks in the ecosytem components and flows among them can be observed within the model in order to compare some turnover characteristics of the succession series with those of the ecological one.     

Uptake of cadmium in tropical marine lamellibranchs,and effects on physiological behaviour

The effect of cadmium introduced as inorganic salts (chloride, nitrate, sulfate, carbonate, acetate and iodide) or organic chelates (with EDTA, NTA and humic acid) on the physiological behaviour of six species of tropical lamellibranchs — arcid blood clamsAnadara granosa andA. rhombea, venerid clamsMeretrix casta andKatelysia opima, and mytilid musselsPerna viridis andP. indica, collected from various intertidal areas in southern India from 1986 to 1989 — was evaluated. Inorganic salts of Cd are reported to completely ionize upon introduction to full-strength sea water and form predominantly (97%) chloride complexes. Some inorganic Cd salts, therefore, would hardly affect physiological parameters. However, bioaccumulation of Cd was greatest upon exposure to Cd introduced as sulfate, followed by iodide, acetate, chloride, nitrate and carbonate; 96-h LC₅₀'s also varied, but in a different order, being highest for chloride (3.5µg ml^–1), followed by nitrate, acetate, iodide and sulfate (1.8µg ml^–1). Furthermore, Cd levels increased linearly with time of exposure and levels in medium, and were species-specific, being highest in the arcid clams, followed by the venerid clams and mytilid mussels. The presence of other metals such as Zn reduced bioaccumulation of Cd significantly (P < 0.001), but the reverse was not true. Upon exposure to Cd in the presence of Cu, on the other hand, accumulation of both metals was reduced by 15 to 20%. In the presence of organic chelators — EDTA, NTA and reduced glutathione (GSH) — Cd accumulation was significantly inhibited, by 1/2 to 1/3. Humic acid, on the other hand, had no effect. Cd levels in soft tissues were inversely related to ambient salinity in the range of 12 to 32. However, both Zn and Cu significantly inhibited Cd accumulation irrespective of salinity. Cd increased the rate of filtration inAnadara granosa over the first 24 h by 28%, but on prolonged exposure (96 h) that rate decreased significantly, by 50%. Zn alone and in the presence of Cd, on the contrary, initially reduced filtration activity, which subsequently increased to control levels upon continued exposure. Cu alone and in combination with Cd and Zn also significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited filtration relative to controls. This combination also progressively reduced respiratory activity with time, the maximum decrease being 80% after 96 h of exposure. Furthermore, impact of all three metals on both filtration rate and oxygen consumption was initially synergistic, but changed to antagonistic upon prolonged exposure up to 96 h.Deceased. Please send all correspondence and requests for reprints to Dr. S. Patel at the same address     

A hierarchical analysis of terrestrial ecosystem model Biome-BGC: Equilibrium analysis and model calibration

The increasing complexity of ecosystem models represents a major difficulty in tuning model parameters and analyzing simulated results. To address this problem, this study develops a hierarchical scheme that simplifies the Biome-BGC model into three functionally cascaded tiers and analyzes them sequentially. The first-tier model focuses on leaf-level ecophysiological processes; it simulates evapotranspiration and photosynthesis with prescribed leaf area index (LAI). The restriction on LAI is then lifted in the following two model tiers, which analyze how carbon and nitrogen is cycled at the whole-plant level (the second tier) and in all litter/soil pools (the third tier) to dynamically support the prescribed canopy. In particular, this study analyzes the steady state of these two model tiers by a set of equilibrium equations that are derived from Biome-BGC algorithms and are based on the principle of mass balance. Instead of spinning-up the model for thousands of climate years, these equations are able to estimate carbon/nitrogen stocks and fluxes of the target (steady-state) ecosystem directly from the results obtained by the first-tier model. The model hierarchy is examined with model experiments at four AmeriFlux sites. The results indicate that the proposed scheme can effectively calibrate Biome-BGC to simulate observed fluxes of evapotranspiration and photosynthesis; and the carbon/nitrogen stocks estimated by the equilibrium analysis approach are highly consistent with the results of model simulations. Therefore, the scheme developed in this study may serve as a practical guide to calibrate/analyze Biome-BGC; it also provides an efficient way to solve the problem of model spin-up, especially for applications over large regions. The same methodology may help analyze other similar ecosystem models as well.     

Predator diversity and ecosystem functioning: density modifies the effect of resource partitioning

The link between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is now well established, but the challenge remains to develop a mechanistic understanding of observed effects. Predator-prey interactions provide an opportunity to examine the role of resource partitioning, thought to be a principal mediator of biodiversity-function relationships. To date, interactions between multiple predators and their prey have typically been investigated in simplified agricultural systems with limited scope for resource partitioning. Thus there remains a dearth of studies examining the functional consequences of predator richness in diverse food webs. Here, we manipulated a species-rich intertidal food web, crossing predator diversity with total predator density, to simultaneously examine the independent and interactive effects of diversity and density on the efficiency of secondary resource capture. The effect of predator diversity was only detectable at high predator densities where competitive interactions between individual predators were magnified; the rate of resource capture within the species mixture more than doubled that of the best-performing single species. Direct observation of species-specific resource use in monoculture, as quantified by patterns of prey consumption, provided clear evidence that species occupied distinct functional niches, suggesting a mechanistic explanation of the observed diversity effect.     

Development of Lake Ladoga ecosystem models: modeling of the phytoplankton succession in the eutrophication process. I

New models of Lake Ladoga ecosystem and the results of modeling are presented. In the first part the model of phytoplankton succession in the process of anthropogenic eutrophication of the lake is considered under the evolution of the phosphorus loading. The still continued anthropogenic eutrophication of the lake started in 1962 when the phosphorus load began to increase. Since 1962 during the evolution of the lake’s state from oligotrophic to developed mezotrophic one, the structure of phytoplankton community dominating species was significantly changed as well as its total productivity. The system state in the model is described by 14 parameters: nine phytoplankton complexes, zooplankton, dissolved organic matter, detritus, dissolved mineral phosphorus and dissolved oxygen. The number of parameters of this model is noticeably larger than that of previous models created by the authors. The relative dynamics of phytoplankton complexes in the lake’s ecosystem evolution was simulated by the new model. It is shown that the modeling results are adequately corresponding to the observation data. The results of phytoplankton structure modeling allow to estimate the impact of phytoplankton on the water quality as well as give the prediction of the lake’s ecosystem evolution with the changes of the phosphorus loading.     

Laboratory-made artificial marine snow: a biological model of the real thing

Cylindrical tanks of unfiltered seawater were rotated on a roller table until the particles in the seawater formed aggregates resembling marine snow. During the summer of 1987 comparisons were made between marine snow in field samples from two coastal sites on seven separate dates, and aggregates formed in the laboratory in seawater samples taken on the same dates. Aggregates in field and laboratory samples were photographed and their dimensions were determined. Particulate composition of the aggregates was characterized by the abundance of diatoms, benthic diatoms, diatom frustules, mineral grains, fecal pellets, and fungal spores. Laboratory-prepared aggregates had a significantly greater short axis, and significantly larger calculated volume than field aggregates. Particulate compositions of field aggregates were paralleled by similar changes in the laboratory product. Dry weights of known numbers of aggregates collected on three dates indicated no significant differences in calculated densities or porosities of marine snow formed in the field and in the laboratory. We suggest that this method of forming marine snow in the laboratory may provide researchers with a useful experimental tool.