Evaluation of coastal zone sustainability: an integrated approach applied in Shanghai Municipality and Chong Ming Island

A systems approach has been applied to the examination of sustainable development in the coastal zone. This complex system is envisaged as comprising three sub-systems: environment and resources, economic development and society. A sustainability indicator system based on these three sub-systems has been set up to evaluate the nature of development in the coastal zone. The administrative regions of the Municipality of Shanghai and Chong Ming Island (in the Yangtze Estuary) have been selected as two coastal zones in which to demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the approach. The approach indicated that the development process in Shanghai is one of weak sustainability with relatively rapid social and economic development at the cost of environment and resource degradation. In contrast, social and economic development in Chong Ming County has been limited to protect the regional environment and resources indicating a more sustainable approach to development.     

基于社区居民调查的海岸带资源和环境感知研究——以江苏盐城市为例

海岸带具有强大的环境功能和生态效益,在维持地球表面生态平衡中起着极为重要的作用。同时,海岸带资源和环境也是居民生存和发展的基础。本文以江苏盐城市海岸带为例,从自然资源、人类行为环境、生态环境治理、社会经济以及资源信息环境5个方面对社区居民进行了海岸带资源和环境的感知的调查研究,得出一些基本结论,并在此基础上提出了海岸带资源和环境可持续发展的建议与对策。     

西安市生态经济系统的能值分析与发展评估

运用能值理论与方法,分析了西安2000-2005年的人口承载量、人均能值、能值投入率、能值货币比率、电力能值比、环境负荷率、净能值产出率和可持续发展指数8个指标及其变化趋势,并与其他国家和地区的相关指标进行比较研究.结果表明,西安市经济发展主要是依赖当地资源,能值自给率达93.35%,人口数量已经超出环境承载量,未来加强优势资源的开发、引进外界资源、控制人口规模、转变经济增长方式、减少与防治污染才是实现其持续性发展的必由之路.     

Energy analysis and the coupling of man and estuaries

New concepts and insights concerning human and natural systems in the coastal zone are emerging from recent energy analysis and synthesis studies. By using new concepts for measuring the quality of energy, one can express the work of ecosystems and human economies in equivalent terms. From energy models and new energy quality evaluations, one can learn what kinds of coastal systems maximize power, are competitive, economically vital, and likely to have a survival advantage.Energy analysis and synthesis is aided by energy circuit diagrams. Models of the coastal zone that emphasize the change in external driving functions related to world energy sources provide insights and some predictive abilities that are not found in economic studies, since money flows alone do not evaluate external driving energies.This paper suggests four procedures for coastal planning: 1) calculation of investment ratio in units of equal quality to determine which projects are economic in a broad sense, 2) development of energy signatures for coastal ecosystems, 3) determination of which interface ecosystems develop the best energy flows, and 4) development of regional models that include the main features of human and natural ecosystems.     

基于能值分析的苏州市城市生态系统可持续发展评估

本文利用能值分析的方法,分析了苏州城市生态系统的各种生态流,并建立了苏州城市生态系统可持续发展能值评价指标体系,评估其可持续发展程度,并对其能值指标的发展进行了预测。研究结果显示,2007年苏州市系统利用总能值达到616.71×1021sej,能值自给率仅为35.5%,环境负载率达到61.67。与其他国家和地区能值指标对比得出,苏州市是一个高度外向型生态经济系统,其系统的发展高度依赖于外界资源的输入,面对现在不稳定的世界经济发展和外部环境,苏州市必须加大系统自身的供给能力,提高系统自身的稳定性;发展循环经济,降低系统环境负载率;加强高科技和人才投入,提高系统可持续发展潜力。     

EMERGY-based environmental systems assessment of a multi-purpose temperate mixed-forest watershed of the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA

Emergy (with an 'm') synthesis was used to assess the balance between nature and humanity and the equity among forest outcomes of a US Forest Service ecosystem management demonstration project on the Wine Spring Creek watershed, a high-elevation (1600 m), temperate forest located in the southern Appalachian mountains of North Carolina, USA. EM embraces a holistic perspective, accounting for the multiple temporal and spatial scales of forest processes and public interactions, to balance the ecological, economic, and social demands placed on land resources. Emergy synthesis is a modeling tool that allows the structure and function of forest ecosystems to be quantified in common units (solar emergy-joules, sej) for easy and meaningful comparison, determining 'system-value' for forcing factors, components, and processes based on the amount of resources required to develop and sustain them, whether they are money, material, energy, or information. The Environmental Loading Ratio (ELR), the units of solar emergy imported into the watershed via human control per unit of indigenous, natural solar emergy, was determined to be 0.42, indicating that the load on the natural environment was not ecologically damaging and that excess ecological capacity existed for increasing non-ecological activities (e.g. timbering, recreation) to achieve an ELR of 1.0 (perfect ecological-economic balance). Three forest outcomes selected to represent the three categories of desired sustainability (ecological, economic, and social) were evaluated in terms of their solar emergy flow to measure outcome equity. Direct economic contribution was an order of magnitude less (224 x 10(12)solar emergy-joules (sej) ha(-1)) than the ecological and social contributions, which were provided at annual rates of 3083 and 2102 x 10(12)sejha(-1), respectively. Emergy synthesis was demonstrated to holistically integrate and quantify the interconnections of a coupled nature-human system allowing the goals of ecological balance and outcome equity to be measured quantitatively.     

Dynamic emergy evaluation of a fish farm rearing process

The environmental sustainability of a fish farm rearing process was examined by means of emergy analysis. Many emergy analyses integrate data for a whole year smoothing short term variations and sometimes losing meaningful information (aliasing). For this reason we developed a model for an instantaneous emergy evaluation in an aquacultural system so that transformities, efficiency and effort spent at each moment during the fish rearing activity could be calculated. By means of the model and dynamic emergy calculations it is possible to recognize step by step the importance of the various emergy contributions and verify where and when to modify the system to move toward optimum production of a sustainable product. By the application of the model we confirmed that the emergy trends in a fish farm installation follow wide oscillations during a year due to variations in both internal and external emergy contributions. Among the fluxes considered, those due to the introduction of fingerlings represented the highest contributions to the total emergy budget. Thus, to improve the sustainability of the analyzed system the amount, frequency and timing of these fluxes must be carefully considered. For this purpose, a comparison between two different fry introduction schedules was performed to evaluate differences in the efficiency of the rearing process.     

基于能值生态足迹的海岛可持续性评估——以舟山为例

基于能值理论,结合生态足迹方法,构建能值生态赤字/盈余、渔业足迹强度(D)、社会发展压力指数(I)和经济协调指数(Q)参数评价海岛可持续性,选取典型海岛城市浙江省舟山市作为案例研究。结果显示:2003—2017年舟山能值足迹、能值承载力均呈上升趋势;人均能值生态足迹共增加15.78 hm²,增幅为63.26%;人均能值承载力增加5.20×10² hm²,增幅为82.86%;其中,化石能源用地能值足迹增加最多,社会经济承载力增加最多,而自然承载力却有所下降。能值生态赤字/盈余和经济协调指数不能完全反映区域可持续性,区域渔业足迹强度的不断增加表明当前的渔业经济模式不满足可持续发展要求,社会发展压力指数增大也进一步表明舟山的发展状况偏离了可持续性的轨道。     

Socially cooperative choices: An approach to achieving resource sustainability in the coastal zone

Achieving resource sustainability, particularly in the coastal zone, is complicated by a variety of interdependencies and trade-offs between economic, social, and ecological variables. Although trade-offs between each of these variables are important, this paper emphasizes the social components of resource management. In this regard a distinction is made between individual and cooperative choices. Individual choices frequently are made from a shortterm, self-interested perspective, whereas cooperative choices are made from a long-term, community and resource-sustainability perspective. Typically, when presented with a spectrum of resource management decisions, individuals have a tendency to act in a self-interested manner. Thus, cooperative benefits, such as reduced conflict and improved resource certainty, are not realized. An overview of selected aspects of social dilemma theory suggests that socially cooperative choice outcomes are attainable in coastal zone management by integrating structural and behavioral solutions in resource use decision making. Three barriers to successful integration of structural and behavioral solutions are identified as self-interest, mistrust, and variable perceptions of resource amenities. Examples from coastal zone management indicate that these barriers may be overcome using approaches such as scopereduction, co-management, community education, and local participation. The paper also provides comment on the potential benefits of integrating structural and behavioral solutions in international coastal zone management efforts.     

An energy systems view of sustainability: emergy evaluation of the San Luis Basin, Colorado

Energy Systems Theory (EST) provides a framework for understanding and interpreting sustainability. EST implies that "what is sustainable" for a system at any given level of organization is determined by the cycles of change originating in the next larger system and within the system of concern. The pulsing paradigm explains the ubiquitous cycles of change that apparently govern ecosystems, rather than succession to a steady state that is then sustainable. Therefore, to make robust decisions among environmental policies and alternatives, decision-makers need to know where their system resides in the cycles of change that govern it. This theory was examined by performing an emergy evaluation of the sustainability of a regional system, the San Luis Basin (SLB), CO. By 1980, the SLB contained a climax stage agricultural system with well-developed crop and livestock production along with food and animal waste processing. The SLB is also a hinterland in that it exports raw materials and primary products (exploitation stage) to more developed areas. Emergy indices calculated for the SLB from 1995 to 2005 revealed changes in the relative sustainability of the system over this time. The sustainability of the region as indicated by the renewable emergy used as a percent of total use declined 4%, whereas, the renewable carrying capacity declined 6% over this time. The Emergy Sustainability Index (ESI) showed the largest decline (27%) in the sustainability of the region. The total emergy used by the SLB, a measure of system well-being, was fairly stable (CV?=?0.05). In 1997, using renewable emergy alone, the SLB could support 50.7% of its population at the current standard of living, while under similar conditions the U.S. could support only 4.8% of its population. In contrast to other indices of sustainability, a new index, the Emergy Sustainable Use Index (ESUI), which considers the benefits gained by the larger system compared to the potential for local environmental damage, increased 34% over the period.     

Emergy analysis of municipal wastewater treatment and generation of electricity by digestion of sewage sludge

This study examines and evaluates, by using emergy analysis, the use of environmental resources for wastewater treatment in a Swedish town. Emergy analysis was applied, while it facilitates the comparison of resource use of substantially different kind. In the emergy analysis, all resources are assessed on the basis of the amount of direct and indirect solar energy required in their generation. The study also includes an evaluation of the amount of emergy associated with the production of wastewater. On the basis of our analysis, we suggest that the large amount of emergy that wastewater contains are in proportion to the amount of resources employed for wastewater treatment and the extensive effects on surrounding ecosystems of discharge of untreated wastewater. The use of local renewable natural resources in Swedish municipal wastewater treatment systems is negligible compared with the use of purchased inputs, processed largely with the support of fossil energy. A drastic shift of this order would demand that extensive land areas surrounding human settlements be (indirectly or directly) devoted to wastewater treatment. These areas are not accessible today. Our analysis also indicates that resource requirements from the economy in the production of electricity by the digestion of sewage sludge is about two times the total resource use for generation of the average mix of electricity used in the town. We, therefore, conclude that if the only reason to digest the sludge were to produce electricity, it would be more resource-efficient to purchase the electricity on the Swedish distribution net. Accordingly, there is no resource economy in producing biomass to digest just to increase the energy production at the wastewater treatment plant.     

Striking the Balance Between Environment and Economy in Coastal North Carolina

A fundamental purpose of intergovernmental growth management has been to infuse regional concerns—especially regional environmental and economic development concerns—into local land use planning. This paper presents results from a study of state-mandated local planning in coastal North Carolina during the mid-1990s, addressing in particular local efforts to ‘strike a balance’ between environment and economy as required by the state's planning mandate. While acknowledging the need for coastal resource protection, coastal localities were not striking a balance between environment and economy through their planning efforts beyond stating support for the State's minimum resource protection rules. Within this context, key factors yielding less environmentally focused local planning included both local elected officials' concerns about the need for economic development for jobs and their belief that environmental protection was not a local problem. Factors that tended to shift local planning back toward environmental protection included local officials' perception that the local economy was in good shape and heightened citizen engagement.     

Surface iron ore mining in eastern India and local level sustainability

Mining often brings certain irreversible changes to the surrounding environment. Different types of natural resources mostly surround the mines. Degradation of natural resources around the active mining zone may adversely affect the local economy. After cessation of mining operations local people may no longer be able to sustain their livelihood from the surrounding degraded natural resource; there are chances that the economy of the region will be shattered. The paper deals with this problem of local level sustainability of iron ore mining in eastern India. This problem is examined in the light of different theories of sustainability and national policies. By using household survey data, sustainability of iron ore mining in this region is tested. Substitution of depleting natural capital with other forms of capital can promote long-term sustainability of the local economy. This necessitates certain policy interventions to induce the mine operators to reinvest some part of their resource rent in the natural capital of the region.     

Towards a socio‐economic analysis of Scotland's coastal areas

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) has evolved as a key mechanism for the delivery of sustainable development objectives within coastal regions. Yet, despite significant advancements in ICZM application over recent years, one of the most noticeable weaknesses of ICZM performance has been a failure to adequately account for the existence of socio‐economic concerns. This information deficiency is particularly apparent in Scotland. Despite significant progress in the promotion of ICZM, Scottish experiences have been characterized by a focus upon sectoral policy co‐ordination and environmental dimensions of sustainability. This paper provides an evaluation of both socio‐economic conditions and processes which impact upon coastal communities in Scotland and considers how such issues can be accounted for within future coastal management debates.     

Emergy evaluation perspectives of a multipurpose dam proposal in Korea

The 'emergy' concept was used to evaluate the economy of Korea and the contributions of a multipurpose dam proposal to the real wealth of the Korean economy. Emergy is defined as the available energy of one kind previously used up directly and indirectly to make a product or service. The indices for Korea calculated from the emergy evaluation were close to those of developed countries. Even though its monetary balance of payments was negative in 1997, the economy of Korea showed positive balance in trade when exports and imports were expressed in emergy. The emergy evaluation showed that the Korean economy places a large stress on its environment. Water supply and generation of electricity were the most important contributions of the proposed dam in terms of emergy; 46.5 and 45.1% of the total benefit, respectively. Flood control contributed 8.4% of the total benefit. Major costs associated with the proposed dam were from sediments (33.2% of the total cost), construction services (22.8%), and social disruption of the region (21.6%). In terms of emergy, the ratio of benefits to costs of the proposed dam was 2.78 if sediments are not included, and 1.86 if sediments are included, which result in more benefits than costs in both cases. The benefit to cost ratio of the dam was larger than that of the current system (1.42) without the dam whether sediments are included in the total cost or not. The environmental stress of the proposed dam was considerably lower than that of the Korean economy, but the dam might increase stress on local environment.     

Emergy synthesis of tourism-based urban ecosystem

Macao is a tourist city with a dense population, but is short on natural resources. Almost all of the life-support resources of the city depend on imports from outside. During the past 20 years, Macao has experienced an economic boom accompanied by rapid social development. The tourism industry (including gambling, hotel accommodation, restaurant dining, and shows) have become the city's main economic activity since 1991. This paper uses emergy flow analysis to investigate and characterize the urban evolution and city development that have occurred in Macao from 1983 to 2003. Macao's tourism industry has existed almost from the establishment of the city, with the legalization of gambling in Macao occurring in 1850. Tourism has become the biggest industry in Macao, contributing more than half of the city's revenues since 1995. The emergy flow related to tourism was tracked and analyzed to measure its contribution to Macao. In addition, we used statistical analysis to divide the various emergy-based indicators into three categories: positive, negative, and insensitive indicators.     

基于能值分析的山区县域经济可持续发展评价——以吉林省抚松县为例

选取吉林省抚松县为研究区域,采用能值分析方法,从生态安全、经济发展、社会接受方面建立评价指标体系,对吉林省抚松县生态经济系统进行定量和定性评价。研究结果表明：①2005--2009年抚松县生态经济系统能值投入量和能值产出量均呈增加态势,能值投入以本地资源为主,工业产值迅速增加（以林产品为主）,而农产品产值持续减少。②抚松县经济发展水平在全国、全省范围内均属于较低水平,工业发展效率很低,居民生活质量不高。③生态环境压力逐年增大,主要原因是自然资源的大规模开发,但是与其他发达地区、我国西部地区相比,抚松县在生态环境承载力方面仍具有相对优势。据此,提出了通过大力发展旅游产业、绿色食品、林产品的深加工等增强系统开放性,深入挖掘优势资源的高价值形态,以达到山区县域经济的可持续发展。     

Changes in attitudes about importance of and willingness to pay for salmon recovery in Oregon

Salmon are perhaps the quintessential icon of the Pacific Northwest, affecting the region's culture, politics, and economy. The importance Oregonians place on salmon recovery and their willingness to pay for salmon recovery efforts was assessed biennially between 1996 and 2002 through the Oregon Population Survey. Based on these data, we found that Oregonians appear to have become less supportive toward salmon recovery and salmon recovery efforts over that time period; they were less likely to say salmon recovery is important and chose lower willingness to pay responses in 2002 than in 1996.Attitudes do appear to be related to the economic conditions and demographic composition of residents of the state. In particular, we found that local unemployment rates, age of respondent, and rural county residence are significantly negatively correlated with the respondent's expressed support for salmon recovery efforts. Attributes positively correlated with expressions of support for salmon include male gender, graduate-level education, and American Indian identity. We found that a significant portion of the decline in support is unexplained by the variables included in the analysis.     

苏州国际旅游节城市旅游效应研究与思考

现代节庆活动发展迅速,有效塑造了城市旅游形象,促进了城市旅游业的发展。以苏州国际旅游节为例,对历届苏州国际旅游节进行了初步梳理和分析,利用相关数据,对其产生的旅游经济效应、社会文化效应和环境效应进行了综合评价,认为苏州国际旅游节成功塑造了苏州的城市形象,刺激了苏州旅游业发展,有利于苏州旅游资源的有效整合。当前苏州国际旅游节在运营模式、主题创新和当地居民参与度等方面还存在一些问题,对此进行了思考并提出改进建议,以期更好地发挥苏州国际旅游节的整体旅游效应。     

Integrating emergy evaluation and geographic information systems for monitoring resource use in the Abruzzo region (Italy)

This paper presents an application of an environmental accounting method, namely emergy evaluation, developed for the monitoring and assessment of environmental resource use by local communities in the Abruzzo Region (Italy). Once quantified and classified according to their origin (renewable or non-renewable, local or external), emergy flows were elaborated through a geographic information system (GIS) that allowed us to represent their spatial distribution throughout the region. Outcomes took the form of patterns in which different emergy intensities, namely empower (unit: seJ yr^?1), were represented through a graduated grey-scale and visualized on a cartographic basis. The concentration of emergy flows, depending on the activity of local communities, showed variable levels of environmental load in different areas. In particular, spatial zones with homogeneous values of empower density (unit: seJ yr^?1 km^?2) – high, medium and low – were detected in order to identify areas with a similar “thermodynamic” nature, emergy being a thermodynamics based function. This allowed for the representation, at a glance, of a kind of geography that mirrors the behavior of a population settled in an area as additional information for investigating the effects of the use of urban structures and functions and improving our understanding of regional systems. A combined use of emergy evaluation and GIS could thus provide a complementary view of a territorial system and inform policy makers for planning specific strategies of future development.