Environmental regulation, productive efficiency and cost of pollution abatement: a case study of the sugar industry in India

In this paper the input distance function is estimated for the Indian Sugar industry under alternative assumptions of weak and strong disposability of bad outputs. The estimated distance function is used to make the estimates of environmental efficiency, Malmquist productivity index and shadow prices of pollutants. The technical efficiency measure estimated under the assumption of weak disposability of bad outputs is utilized to test the Porter hypothesis. Marginal costs of pollution abatement functions are estimated for different pollutants of water. Pollutant specific taxes are computed using the tax-standards method.     

Collective action: an alternative institutional arrangement for reducing water pollution in an industrial estate in India

This study explores the possibility of collective action as an alternative option for reducing water pollution for a cluster of small-scale industries. A case study of the Nandesari Industrial Estate in Gujarat, India, demonstrates the roles played by different agents, such as affected parties, polluters, non-governmental organizations, regulators and the court. The study empirically estimates the 'benefits' and 'costs' of water pollution abatement for a cluster of 250 small-scale industries at Nandesari, and uses these estimates for a social cost-benefit analysis. Benefits are estimated using the contingent valuation method, with a 'willingness to accept' format for the rural areas, and a 'willingness to pay' format for the urban area of the nearby Vadodara city. The article considers costs of command and control, market-based solutions and the option of common effluent treatment as alternative scenarios. It discusses how collective action and joint abatement at a common effluent treatment plant (CETP) by the 250 industries efficiently comply with the State Pollution Control Board norms, which had not been possible for the factories acting individually over the last 20 years. Finally, a detailed social cost-benefit analysis has been undertaken to estimate the net present social benefits with and without CETP. The cost-benefit analysis shows the economic advantage and social desirability of 'collective action' (joint treatment with CETP institutional arrangement) for water pollution abatement with respect to all possible scenarios comprising shadow prices of investment, foreign exchange, unskilled labour and equity considerations.     

POTENTIAL WATER USE AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION PATTERNS UNDER ALTERNATIVE WATER PRICES1

Out study deals with the demand for water and alternative agricultural production and land use patterns under varying prices for both surface and ground water. We derive irrigation water demands for both the United States and regions of it. Not only is a different amount of water used at each set of water prices but also a different mix of crops, livestock, and production technology develops among the different regions. Under the highest set of prices used, more than fourteen million acres are converted into dryland farming. Total irrigated water use decreases by more than 25 million acre-feet. Irrigated crop yields are reduced and cropping patterns shift away from irrigation. Commodity shadow prices increase as much as 15 percent under high prices for both surface and ground water. A redistribution of farm income occurs between irrigated and dryland regions.     

Nutrient-Balance Modeling as a Tool for Environmental Management in Aquaculture: The Case of Trout Farming in France

The control and prevention of nutrient pollution from fish farming plays an essential role in the French regulatory framework. Assessing nutrient emissions from fish farms is important in terms of farm authorization, taxation, and monitoring. Currently employed strategies involve both water sampling and empirical modeling. This article reports the work and outcomes of an expert panel that evaluated existing methodologies and their possible alternatives. The development and evaluation of a nutrient-balance approach was assessed as a potential alternative to currently used methodologies. A previously described nutrient-balance model was suggested and parameterized using expert choice, and its validity and applicability were assessed. The results stress that the nutrient-balance model provides more robust and relatively conservative waste estimates compared to the currently used methodologies. Sensitivity of the approach to the uneven data quality available at farm level, difficulties of on-farm measurements, as well as model requirements and limitations are discussed.     

Cost-benefit analysis of water-reuse projects for environmental purposes: a case study for Spanish wastewater treatment plants

Water reuse is an emerging and promising non-conventional water resource. Feasibility studies are essential tools in the decision making process for the implementation of water-reuse projects. However, the methods used to assess economic feasibility tend to focus on internal costs, while external impacts are relegated to unsubstantiated statements about the advantages of water reuse. Using the concept of shadow prices for undesirable outputs of water reclamation, the current study developed a theoretical methodology to assess internal and external economic impacts. The proposed methodological approach is applied to 13 wastewater treatment plants in the Valencia region of Spain that reuse effluent for environmental purposes. Internal benefit analyses indicated that only a proportion of projects were economically viable, while when external benefits are incorporated all projects were economically viable. In conclusion, the economic feasibility assessments of water-reuse projects should quantitatively evaluate economic, environmental and resource availability.     

A choice experiment analysis for solid waste disposal option: a case study in Malaysia

In Malaysia, most municipal wastes currently are disposed into poorly managed 'controlled tipping' systems with little or no pollution protection measures. This study was undertaken to assist the relevant governmental bodies and service providers to identify an improved waste disposal management strategy. The study applied the choice experiment technique to estimate the nonmarket values for a number of waste disposal technologies. Implicit prices for environmental attributes such as psychological fear, land use, air pollution, and river water quality were estimated. Compensating surplus estimates incorporating distance from the residences of the respondents to the proposed disposal facility were calculated for a number of generic and technology-specific choice sets. The resulting estimates were higher for technology-specific options, and the distance factor was a significant determinant in setting an equitable solid waste management fee.     

A free,open-source tool for identifying urban agglomerations using polygon data

This paper describes the function of a software tool for identifying urban agglomerations in low-information settings using free, open data. The framework outlined here is designed to work using polygon data. This paper describes the advantages and disadvantages of using polygon-based geographies in regional analysis, discusses the practical and ethical challenges of distinguishing urban from rural regions, and discusses the relevance of this tool in the analysis of global city regions. It also describes the logical structure of our polygon-based software tool and directs interested readers to the source code. We finally examine the agglomeration results for Sri Lanka and compare them with published urbanization figures. We conclude that there are very large disparities between our model’s outputs and the urbanization estimates from the United Nations and that our tools can be used as a less discretionary way to identify actual levels of urbanization. We hope that other analysts will continue to refine the progression toward a less discretionary model of identifying urban regions.     

Learning in participatory environmental governance – its antecedents and effects. Findings from a case survey meta-analysis

ABSTRACT

Theory on participatory and collaborative governance maintains that learning is essential to achieve good environmental outcomes. Empirical research has mostly produced individual case studies, and reliable evidence on both antecedents and environmental outcomes of learning remains sparse. Given conceptual ambiguities in the literature, we define governance-related learning in a threefold way: learning as deliberation; as knowledge- and capacity-building; and as informing environmental outputs. We develop nine propositions that explain learning through factors characterizing governance process and context, and three propositions explaining environmental outcomes of learning. We test these propositions drawing on the ‘SCAPE’ database of 307 published case studies of environmental decision-making, using multiple regression models. Results show that learning in all three modes is explained to some extent by a combination of process- and context-related factors. Most factors matter for learning, but with stark differences across the three modes of learning, thus demonstrating the relevance of this differentiated approach. Learning modes build on one another: Deliberation is seen to explain both capacity building and informed outputs, while informed outputs are also explained by capacity building. Contrary to our expectations, none of the learning variables was found to significantly affect environmental outcomes when considered alongside the process- and context-related variables.     

Measuring the welfare cost of air pollution in Shanghai: evidence from the housing market

The purpose of this study is to quantify the marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for clean air in China. We provide the first estimate of MWTP for clean air by implementing a hedonic method using housing price and air quality data from Shanghai. Our estimates imply that air pollution has a significant and negative impact on housing price. We also find that the willingness to pay for better air quality varies significantly across different income groups. This paper helps to deepen our understanding of the economic impacts of air pollution in emerging Asian metropolises where residents are suffering from the most severe respiratory health problems.     

Modeling protected species as an undesirable output: the case of sea turtle interactions in Hawaii's longline fishery

Interactions with sea turtles have occurred at an alarming rate in swordfish longlining in Hawaii in recent years and various regulations have been put forward to protect sea turtles. In order to understand the cost of reducing sea turtle interactions, methods have been developed to derive the shadow price of sea turtle bycatch based on fisher's welfare loss from a specific regulation. This paper illustrates an alternative method of calculating temporal and trip-specific cost of sea turtle bycatch reduction. The advantages of this method lie in the computation of shadow price without assuming specific regulation implementation and its relatively modest data requirement. A parametric output distance function is used to simultaneously model desirable and undesirable catches. Using the duality argument, the revenue-related shadow price of sea turtle bycatch can be derived from the estimated distance function. Average shadow price of sea turtle bycatch for the period 1991-1999 is estimated to be US $30873 in 1991 dollars. Average shadow prices of sea turtle bycatch by trip characteristics, such as fishing year, trip type and location are also estimated. Such information can be useful for policy makers to analyze tradeoffs and make appropriate policy decisions.     

Sustainable rangeland management using a multi-fuzzy model: how to deal with heterogeneous experts' knowledge

While fuzzy specialists commonly use homogeneous experts' knowledge to construct fuzzy models, it is much more difficult to deal with knowledge elicited from a heterogeneous group of experts. This issue is exemplified in the area of sustainable rangeland management (SRM). One way to deal with the diversity of opinions is to develop a fuzzy system for all experts and to combine all these, the so-called primary systems, into one multi-fuzzy model. To derive each of the primary fuzzy systems, several semi-structured interviews were held in three different areas of the Fars province in Southwest Iran using the knowledge of a group of administrative experts. To obtain the final output of the multi-fuzzy model, we applied different 'voting' methods. The first method simply uses the arithmetic average of the primary outputs as the final output of the multi-fuzzy model. This final output represents an estimation of the right rate of stocking (RRS). We also propose other (un)supervised voting methods. Most importantly, by harmonising the primary outputs such that outliers get less emphasis, we introduce an unsupervised voting method for calculating a weighted estimate of the RRS. This harmonising method is expected to provide a new useful tool for policymakers dealing with heterogenity in experts' opinions: it is especially useful where limited field data are available and one is forced to rely on experts' knowledge only. By constructing the three fuzzy models based on the elicitation of heterogeneous experts' knowledge, our study shows the multidimensional vaguenesses that exist in SRM. Finally, by comparing the final RRS with its common values, this study strongly points to the existence of overgrazing in pastures in the three regions of the Fars province in Southwest Iran.     

THE IMPACT OF WATER RESOURCE QUALITY CHANGES ON SURROUNDING PROPERTY VALUES1

ABSTRACT: A case study is used to demonstrate a methodology for measuring the residential property value benefit of water pollution abatement. Increases in the value of single-family homes attributable to improvement in the water quality of the nearby Willamette River (Clackamas County, Oregon) were measured using a regression analysis technique. Sales prices and tax assessment data were used to estimate the change in property values coincident with the changes in water quality. The percentage increase in property value due to pollution abatement is expressed as a function of the distance between properties and the river bank.     

Detection capacity,information gaps and the design of surveillance programs for invasive forest pests

Integrated pest risk maps and their underlying assessments provide broad guidance for establishing surveillance programs for invasive species, but they rarely account for knowledge gaps regarding the pest of interest or how these can be reduced. In this study we demonstrate how the somewhat competing notions of robustness to uncertainty and potential knowledge gains could be used in prioritizing large-scale surveillance activities. We illustrate this approach with the example of an invasive pest recently detected in North America, Sirex noctilio Fabricius. First, we formulate existing knowledge about the pest into a stochastic model and use the model to estimate the expected utility of surveillance efforts across the landscape. The expected utility accounts for the distribution, abundance and susceptibility of the host resource as well as the value of timely S. noctilio detections. Next, we make use of the info-gap decision theory framework to explore two alternative pest surveillance strategies. The first strategy aims for timely, certain detections and attempts to maximize the robustness to uncertainty about S. noctilio behavior; the second strategy aims to maximize the potential knowledge gain about the pest via unanticipated (i.e., opportune) detections. The results include a set of spatial outputs for each strategy that can be used independently to prioritize surveillance efforts. However, we demonstrate an alternative approach in which these outputs are combined via the Pareto ranking technique into a single priority map that outlines the survey regions with the best trade-offs between both surveillance strategies.     

Estimation of the shadow prices of pollutants with production/environment inefficiency taken into account: a nonparametric directional distance function approach

This paper deals with the estimation of the shadow prices of pollutants with a nonparametric directional distance function approach, where the inefficiency involved in the production process is taken into account unlike the previous studies. The directional vector, which is critical to the estimation and subject to the criterion for an appropriate efficiency rule proposed here, is calculated by using the annual plans of power plants in terms of production and environment. In the empirical study for Korea's electric power industry during the period of 1990-1995, we find that the average shadow prices of sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and total suspended particulates (TSP) are approximately 10% lower than those calculated under the assumption of full efficiency. The methodology we propose and the findings obtained in the empirical study allow us to undertake better decision-making over a broad range of environmental policy issues.     

Identification of river water quality using the fuzzy synthetic evaluation approach.

Proper identification of water quality conditions in a river system based on limited observations is an essential task for meeting the goals of environmental management. Various classification methods have been used for estimating the changing status and usability of surface water in river basins. However, a discrepancy frequently arises from the lack of a clear distinction between each water utilisation mode, the uncertainty in the quality criteria employed and the vagueness or fuzziness embedded in the decision-making output values. Owing to inherent imprecision, difficulties always exist in some conventional methodologies when describing integrated water quality conditions with respect to various chemical constituents, biological aspects, nutrients, and aesthetic qualities. This paper presents a comparative study using three fuzzy synthetic evaluation techniques to assess water quality conditions in comparison to the outputs generated by conventional procedures such as the Water Quality Index (WQI). Based on a set of data collected at seven sampling stations, a case study for the Tseng-Wen River system in Taiwan was used to demonstrate their application potential. The findings clearly indicate that the techniques may successfully harmonise inherent discrepancies and interpret complex conditions. A further, newly developed fuzzy synthetic evaluation approach described in this paper might also be useful for verifying water quality conditions for the Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) program and be helpful for constructing an effective water quality management strategy.     

我国地膜覆盖和残留污染特点与防控技术

地膜覆盖技术已成为我国农业应用最为广泛的农艺技术之一,但同时地膜残留污染也成为影响农业可持续发展的一个重大问题,系统分析梳理地膜覆盖种植技术、地膜残留污染的特点及防控技术对于该技术合理利用具有重要意义。本文在已有工作基础上,系统分析了我国地膜覆盖种植技术应用情况、地膜残留污染特点和防治技术。结果表明,20世纪80年代以来,我国地膜用量及覆盖面积一直呈大幅度上升态势,年增长率在8％左右,1991—2011年20年间,地膜使用强度增加了3～10倍,但存在明显区域差异。总体上,北方省区的地膜使用强度大,增长幅度快。地膜覆盖应用作物也从经济作物扩大到粮食作物,应用面积最大作物依次为玉米、蔬菜、棉花、烟草和花生等。地膜覆盖技术的应用产生了巨大效益,但同时也带来了一系列污染危害。长期覆膜农田土壤中都存在程度不同的残膜污染,残留量一般在71．9-259．1kg·hm-2。西北地区是残膜污染最严重的地区,土壤中残膜量远远高于华北和西南地区。残留地膜大小和形态多种多样,主要有片状、蜷缩圆筒状和球状等,在土壤中呈水平、垂直和倾斜状分布。目前,我国地膜残留污染防治技术滞后,人工回收是普遍和主要的回收形式,其他防治技术如机械回收、节约型地膜应用、生物降解地膜尚未较大规模应用。当前,为防止地膜残留污染进一步加剧,急需修订完善地膜标准和加强质量监管,提高可回收性;推广节约型地膜使用技术和残膜回收技术;开展地膜覆盖技术适应性研究,促进技术合理利用。     

River pollution from non-point sources: a new simplified method of assessment

Assessment of the pollution of water bodies from non-point sources is a complex data- and time-consuming task. The potential non-point pollution index (PNPI), is a new tool designed to assess the global pressure exerted on rivers and other surface water bodies by different land uses. The main feature of PNPI is the wide availability of its input data. Very detailed input maps, often lacking over many areas, are not needed for PNPI calculation. As a consequence of the input data used, the modelling of physical reality and of processes is heavily simplified. The authors counterbalanced such a simplification using an 'expert system' approach. The system bypasses the accurate representation of the physical reality to assess globally the pollution potential of different land uses according to the judgement of scientists. The scientific community proposes many models for depicting the dynamics of pollutants coming from diffuse sources. Most of them can be grouped into two broad categories: statistical models and physically based models. PNPI belongs to neither of the above-mentioned groups. PNPI is a GIS-based, watershed-scale tool designed to inform decision makers and public opinion about the potential environmental impacts of different land management scenarios. PNPI applies the multicriteria technique to pollutant dynamics and water quality. The pressure exerted on water bodies by diffuse pollution coming from land units is expressed as a function of three indicators: land use, run-off and distance from the river network. They are calculated from land use data, geological maps and a digital elevation model (DEM). The weights given to different land uses and to the three indicators were set according to experts' evaluations and allow calculation of the value of the PNPI for each node of a grid representing the watershed; the higher the PNPI of the cell, the greater the potential impact on the river network. The output of the calculation is presented in the form of maps that highlight areas that are more likely to produce pollution. Last, possibilities, strategies and results of the validation of the PNPI are described. In the authors' view, the explicit link between land use and potential pollution on which PNPI is based, together with its high communication potential, make it particularly interesting for a participatory and integrated approach to land management and environmental protection.     

Environmental externalities and efficiency measurement

Production of desirable outputs often produces by-products that have harmful effects on the environment. This paper investigates technologies where the biggest good output producer is not the greatest polluter, i.e. technologies located on the downward-sloping segment of the frontier depicted in Färe et al. (1989). Directional distance functions and Data Envelopment Analysis techniques are used to define an algorithm that allows them to be identified empirically. Furthermore, we show that in such situations producers can contribute social goods, i.e. reducing polluting wastes, without limiting their capacity to maximise production of marketable output. Finally, we illustrate our methodology with an empirical application to a sample of Spanish ceramic tile producers.     

A COMPARISON OF GEOSTATISTICAL METHODOLOGIES USED TO ESTIMATE SNOW WATER EQUIVALENT1

ABSTRACT: The need to monitor and forecast water resources accurately, particularly in the western United States, is becoming increasingly critical as the demand for water continues to escalate. Consequently, the National Weather Service (NWS) has developed a geostatistical model that is used to obtain areal estimates of snow water equivalent (the thtal water content in all phases of the snowpack), a major source of water in the West. The areal snow water equivalent estimates are used to update the hydrologic simulation models maintained by the NWS and designed to produce extended streamflow forecasts for river systems throughout the United States. An alternative geostatistical technique has been proposed to estimate snow water equivalent. In this research, we describe the two methodologies and compare the accuracy of the estimates produced by each technique. We illustrate their application and compare their estimation accuracy using snow data collected in the North Fork Clearwater River basin in Idaho.     

Geostatistical analysis and risk assessment on soil total nitrogen and total soil phosphorus in the Dongting Lake plain area, China

Nonpoint-source pollution and water body eutrophication have become increasing concerns for scientists and policymakers. Nitrogen and phosphorus affect environmental pollution, especially lake eutrophication. To assess the environmental risk of soil total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) pollution, a typical ecological unit of Dongting Lake plain was selected as the experimental site. To verify the stationary of the data, a moving windows technique was adopted. Our results showed that Box-Cox transformation achieved normality in the data set and dampened the effect of outliers. The best theoretical model for semivariogram of TN and TP was a spherical model. The ordinary kriging estimates of TN and TP concentrations were mapped. The integrative comparisons of semivariogram parameters with different trends to the kriging prediction errors of TN and TP indicated that the two-order trend is preferable. Kriging SDs provided valuable information that will increase the accuracy of TN and TP mapping. The probability kriging method is useful to assess the risk of N and P pollution by providing the conditional probability of N and P concentrations exceeding the threshold concentrations of 3.2 and 1.05 g/kg, respectively. The probability distribution of TN and TP at different levels will be helpful to conduct risk assessment, optimize fertilization, and control the pollution of N and P.