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1.
Geological CO 2 capture and storage (CCS) is among the main near-term contenders for addressing the problem of global climate change. Even
in a baseline scenario, with no comprehensive international climate policy, a moderate level of CCS technology is expected
to be deployed, given the economic benefits associated with enhanced oil and gas recovery. With stringent climate change control,
CCS technologies will probably be installed on an industrial scale. Geologically stored CO 2, however, may leak back to the atmosphere, which could render CCS ineffective as climate change reduction option. This article
presents a long-term energy scenario study for Europe, in which we assess the significance for climate policy making of leakage
of CO 2 artificially stored in underground geological formations. A detailed sensitivity analysis is performed for the CO 2 leakage rate with the bottom-up energy systems model MARKAL, enriched for this purpose with a large set of CO 2 capture technologies (in the power sector, industry, and for the production of hydrogen) and storage options (among which
enhanced oil and gas recovery, enhanced coal bed methane recovery, depleted fossil fuel fields, and aquifers). Through a series
of model runs, we confirm that a leakage rate of 0.1%/year seems acceptable for CCS to constitute a meaningful climate change
mitigation option, whereas one of 1%/year is not. CCS is essentially no option to achieve CO 2 emission reductions when the leakage rate is as high as 1%/year, so more reductions need to be achieved through the use of
renewables or nuclear power, or in sectors like industry and transport. We calculate that under strict climate control policy,
the cumulative captured and geologically stored CO 2 by 2100 in the electricity sector, when the leakage rate is 0.1%/year, amounts to about 45,000 MtCO 2. Only a little over 10,000 MtCO 2 cumulative power-generation-related emissions are captured and stored underground by the end of the century when the leakage
rate is 1%/year. Overall marginal CO 2 abatement costs increase from a few €/tCO 2 today to well over 150 €/tCO 2 in 2100, under an atmospheric CO 2 concentration constraint of 550 ppmv. Carbon costs in 2100 turn out to be about 40 €/tCO 2 higher when the annual leakage rate is 1%/year in comparison to when there is no CO 2 leakage. Irrespective of whether CCS deployment is affected by gradual CO 2 seepage, the annual welfare loss in Europe induced by the implementation of policies preventing “dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system” (under our assumption, implying a climate stabilisation target of 550 ppmv CO 2 concentration) remains below 0.5% of GDP during the entire century.
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2.
Offshore geologic storage of carbon dioxide (CO 2), known as offshore carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), has been under active investigation as a safe, effective mitigation option for reducing CO 2 levels from anthropogenic fossil fuel burning and climate change. Along with increasing trends in implementation plans and related logistics on offshore CCS, thorough risk assessment (i.e. environmental impact monitoring) needs to be conducted to evaluate potential risks, such as CO 2 gas leakage at injection sites. Gas leaks from offshore CCS may affect the physiology of marine organisms and disrupt certain ecosystem functions, thereby posing an environmental risk. Here, we synthesize current knowledge on environmental impact monitoring of offshore CCS with an emphasis on biological aspects and provide suggestions for better practice. Based on our critical review of preexisting literatures, this paper: 1) discusses key variables sensitive to or indicative of gas leakage by summarizing physico-chemical and ecological variables measured from previous monitoring cruises on offshore CCS; 2) lists ecosystem and organism responses to a similar environmental condition to CO 2 leakage and associated impacts, such as ocean acidification and hypercapnia, to predict how they serve as responsive indicators of short- and long-term gas exposure, and 3) discusses the designs of the artificial gas release experiments in fields and the best model simulation to produce realistic leakage scenarios in marine ecosystems. Based on our analysis, we suggest that proper incorporation of biological aspects will provide successful and robust long-term monitoring strategies with earlier detection of gas leakage, thus reducing the risks associated with offshore CCS. 相似文献
4.
Hydrological processes and crop growth were simulated for the state of Brandenburg (Germany) using the hydrological/vegetation/water quality model SWIM, which can be applied for mesoscale river basins or regions. Hydrological validation was carried out for three mesoscale river basins in the area. The crop growth module was validated regionally for winter wheat, winter barley and maize. After that the analysis of climate change impacts on hydrology and crop growth was performed, using a transient 1.5 K scenario of climate change for Brandenburg and restricting the crop spectrum to the three above mentioned crops. According to the scenario, precipitation is expected to increase. The impact study was done comparing simulation results for two scenario periods 2022–2030 and 2042–2050 with those for a reference period 1981–1992. The atmospheric CO 2 concentrations for the reference period and two scenario periods were set to 346, 406 and 436 ppm, respectively. Two different methods – an empirical one and a semi-mechanistic one – were used for adjustment of net photosynthesis to altered CO 2. With warming, the model simulates an increase of evapotranspiration (+9.5%, +15.4%) and runoff (+7.0%, +17.2%). The crop yield was only slightly altered under the climate change only scenario (no CO 2 fertilization effect) for barley and maize, and it was reduced for wheat (–6.2%, –10.3%). The impact of higher atmospheric CO 2 compensated for climate-related wheat yield losses, and resulted in an increased yield both for barley and maize compared to the reference scenario. The simulated combined effect of climate change and elevated CO 2 on crop yield was about 7% higher for the C 3 crops when the CO 2 and temperature interaction was ignored. The assumption that stomatal control of transpiration is taking place at the regional scale led to further increase in crop yield, which was larger for maize than for wheat and barley. The regional water balance was practically not affected by the partial stimulation of net photosynthesis due to higher CO 2, while the introduction of stomatal control of regional transpiration reduced evapotranspiration and enlarged notably runoff and ground water recharge. 相似文献
5.
Many trace constituents other than carbon dioxide affect the radiative budget of the atmosphere. The existing international agreement to limit greenhouse gases, the Kyoto Protocol, includes carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH 4), nitrous oxide (N 2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6) and credit for some carbon sinks. We investigate technological options for reducing emissions of these gases and the economic implications of including other greenhouse gases and sinks in the climate change control policy. We conduct an integreated assessment of costs using the MIT Emissions Prediction and Policy Analysis (EPPA) model combined with estimates of abatement costs for non-CO 2 greenhouse gases and sinks. We find that failure to take advantage of the other gas and sink flexibility would nearly double aggregate Annex B costs. Including all the GHGs and sinks is actually cheaper than if only CO 2 had been included in the Protocol and their inclusion achieves greater overall abatement. There remains considerable uncertainty in these estimates, the magnitude of the savings depends heavily on reference projections of emissions, for example, but these uncertainties do not change the overall conclusion that non-CO 2 GHGs are an important part of a climate control policy. 相似文献
6.
Genetically modified crops (GMCs) and climate change have been two ecological issues intensely debated over the years. The search for global solutions to the effects of climate change on agriculture has led to the proposal of GMCs as a tool to reduce the environmental impact of agricultural practices and to improve their efficiency of production. At least 27 countries, all over the world, have cultivated GMCs. The purpose of the present paper is to provide insights about the possible linkages between the cultivated areas and the CO2 emissions in these countries. In addition, the study intends to establish meaningful relationships between attributes related to the particular socio-economic situations and the environmental impacts of GMCs. Some examples are the connection between acreages of GMCs and the status of each country with respect to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, as well as their classification according to the mean income per capita and their CO2 emissions. In order to give the mathematical support to these links, the methodology known as Order Theory was employed. The results show that Paraguay, India, Burkina Faso, Brazil and Pakistan could be the best contributors to the mitigation of the climate change by the reduction of their CO2 emission levels through GMCs. 相似文献
7.
A major characteristic of our global interactive climate-energy system is the large uncertainty that exists with respect to both future environmental requirements and the means available for fulfilling these. Potentially, a key technology for leading the transition from the current fossil fuel-dominated energy system to a more sustainable one is carbon dioxide capture and storage. Uncertainties exist, however, concerning the large-scale implementability of this technology, such as related to the regional availability of storage sites for the captured CO 2. We analyze these uncertainties from an integrated assessment perspective by using the bottom-up model TIAM-ECN and by studying a set of scenarios that cover a range of different climate targets and technology futures. Our study consists of two main approaches: (1) a sensitivity analysis through the investigation of a number of scenarios under perfect foresight decision making and (2) a stochastic programming exercise that allows for simultaneously considering a set of potential future states-of-the-world. We find that, if a stringent climate (forcing) target is a possibility, it dominates the solution: if deep CO 2 emission reductions are not started as soon as possible, the target may become unreachable. Attaining a stringent climate target comes in any case at a disproportionally high price, which indicates that adaptation measures or climate damages might be preferable to the high mitigation costs such a target implies. 相似文献
8.
Supersaturation and excess emission of greenhouse gases in freshwater reservoirs have received a great deal of attention in recent years. Although impoundment of reservoirs has been shown to contribute to the net emission of greenhouse gases, reservoir age, geographical distribution, submerged soil type and artificial regulation also have a great impact on their emissions. To examine how large scale reservoir operation impact the water column CO 2 and its air–water interface flux, a field study was conducted in 2010 to evaluate potential ecological processes that regulate the partial pressure of CO 2 ( pCO 2) in the water column in the Pengxi River backwater area (PBA), a typical tributary in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Measurements of total alkalinity (TA), pH and water temperature were applied to compute the pCO 2. And this approach was also validated by calculation of pCO 2 from the dissolved inorganic carbon data of samples. Partial least squares (PLS) regression was used to determine how the dynamics of the water pCO 2 were related to the available variables. The estimated pCO 2 in our sample ranged from 26 to 4,087 μatm in the surface water. During low water operation from July to early September, there was an obvious pCO 2 stratification, and pCO 2 in the surface was almost unsaturated. This phenomenon was also observed in the spring bloom during discharge period. Conversely, there was no significant pCO 2 stratification and the entire water column was supersaturated during high water operation from November to the following February. Significant correlation was observed between the magnitude of pCO 2, DO and chlorophyll a, suggesting that phytoplankton dynamics regulate pCO 2 in the PBA. The average areal rate of CO 2 emissions from the Pengxi River ranged from 18.06 to 48.09 mmol m ?2 day ?1, with an estimated gross CO 2 emission from the water surface of 14–37 t day ?1 in this area in 2010. Photosynthesis and respiration rates by phytoplankton might be the dominant processes that regulated pCO 2 in the water column. We conclude that pCO 2 values in the surface water of Pengxi River could be regarded as potential sources of CO 2 to the atmosphere were smaller or similar to those that have been reported for many other reservoirs to date. 相似文献
9.
Macroeconomic models predict that the global primary energy demand will increase by a factor of 2–4 by the year 2050. In contrast,
climate analyses made by the IPCC claim that CO 2 emissions in 2050 should not exceed the values of 1990 or even be 20% lower. By 2100 emissions should be reduced to one third
of the present value. The common wisdom to deal with these opposing trends is the concept of de-carbonization, i.e., the continuous
decrease of the carbon emission per unit energy utilization. De-carbonization rates needed to compensate for the growing demand
while keeping the CO 2-emissions constant should at least be 2% per year compared to actual values of 0.3%. The potential of different de-carbonization
rate measures is analyzed. It is argued that the goal can only be met if per capita energy utilization in the industrialized
countries is significantly reduced from their typical level of 5000–10 000 W. As a realistic target we suggest 2000 Watt per
capita, the present global average. This would leave expansion capacity for the developing countries which presently have
per capita demand between 300 and 1000 W. Based on the example of Switzerland it is shown that the two key issues to attain
this goal are the quality of buildings and the demand for mobility. It is concluded that the conversion of the present energy
system into a 2000 W system is neither limited by technology nor by finances but by the acceptance of a new life style in
which energy is used more efficiently and more intelligently than today.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
10.
Agriculture is a significant source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and beef cattle are particularly emissions intensive. GHG emissions are typically expressed as a carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2e) ‘carbon footprint’ per unit output. The 100-year Global Warming Potential (GWP 100) is the most commonly used CO 2e metric, but others have also been proposed, and there is no universal reason to prefer GWP 100 over alternative metrics. The weightings assigned to non-CO 2 GHGs can differ significantly depending on the metric used, and relying upon a single metric can obscure important differences in the climate impacts of different GHGs. This loss of detail is especially relevant to beef production systems, as the majority of GHG emissions (as conventionally reported) are in the form of methane (CH 4) and nitrous oxide (N 2O), rather than CO 2. This paper presents a systematic literature review of harmonised cradle to farm-gate beef carbon footprints from bottom-up studies on individual or representative systems, collecting the emissions data for each separate GHG, rather than a single CO 2e value. Disaggregated GHG emissions could not be obtained for the majority of studies, highlighting the loss of information resulting from the standard reporting of total GWP 100 CO 2e alone. Where individual GHG compositions were available, significant variation was found for all gases. A comparison of grass fed and non-grass fed beef production systems was used to illustrate dynamics that are not sufficiently captured through a single CO 2e footprint. Few clear trends emerged between the two dietary groups, but there was a non-significant indication that under GWP 100 non-grass fed systems generally appear more emissions efficient, but under an alternative metric, the 100-year global temperature potential (GTP 100), grass-fed beef had lower footprints. Despite recent focus on agricultural emissions, this review concludes there are insufficient data available to fully address important questions regarding the climate impacts of agricultural production, and calls for researchers to include separate GHG emissions in addition to aggregated CO 2e footprints. 相似文献
11.
Increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide CO 2 have a beneficial effect on crop production that would tend to offset some of the economic losses that might be generated in some areas by the climatic effects of atmospheric CO 2 and other greenhouse gases. Previous estimates of the economic benefits of CO 2 fertilization on world crop production, however, were based on the assumption that percent changes in supply are equal to percent changes in yield. This assumption is not valid, however, because it confounds changes in supply with changes in quantity supplied. This error leads to an overestimation of the real economic benefits of CO 2 fertilization by 61–166%. The effects of CO 2 fertilization on crop production, therefore, will reduce some of the potential damages caused by the climatic impacts of greenhouse gases, but by significantly less than that indicated in earlier research. 相似文献
12.
We introduce climate impact response functions as a means for summarizing and visualizing the responses of climate-sensitive
sectors to changes in fundamental drivers of global climate change. In an inverse application, they allow the translation
of thresholds for climate change impacts (‘impact guard-rails’) into constraints for climate and atmospheric composition parameters
(‘climate windows’). It thus becomes feasible to specify long-term objectives for climate protection with respect to the impacts
of climate change instead of crude proxy variables, like the change in global mean temperature. We apply the method to assess
impacts on terrestrial ecosystems, using the threat to protected areas as the central impact indicator. Future climate states
are characterized by geographically and seasonally explicit climate change patterns for temperature, precipitation and cloud
cover, and by their atmospheric CO 2 concentration. The patterns are based on the results of coupled general circulation models. We study the sensitivity of the
impact indicators and the corresponding climate windows to the spatial coverage of the analysis and to different climate change
projections. This enables us to identify the most sensitive biomes and regions, and to determine those factors which significantly
influence the results of the impact assessment. Based on the analysis, we conclude that climate impact response functions
are a valuable means for the representation of climate change impacts across a wide range of plausible futures. They are particularly
useful in integrated assessment models of climate change based on optimizing or inverse approaches where the on-line simulation
of climate impacts by sophisticated impact models is infeasible due to their high computational demand.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
13.
If there are no doubts that we must reduce the total emission of carbon dioxide, then the problem of how much different countries should be allowed to contribute to this amount remains a serious one. We suggest this problem to be considered as a non-antagonistic game (in Germeier's sense). A game of this kind is called an “emission game”. Suppose that there are n independent actors (countries or regions), each of them releasing a certain amount of CO 2 per year (in carbon units) into the atmosphere, and that the emission would be reduced by each actor. Each actor has his own aim: to minimise the loss in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) caused by the reduction of emissions. On the other hand, taking into account that it is impossible to estimate more or less precisely the impact of the climate change on GDP for each country today, a common strategy will be to reduce the climate change. Since one of the main leading factors in global warming is the greenhouse effect, then the common aim will be to reduce the sum of emissions. This is a typical conflict situation. How to resolve it? We can weigh the “egoistic” and “altruistic” criteria for each actor introducing the so-called “coefficients of egoism”. This coefficient is very large, if the actor uses a very egoistic strategy, and conversely, if the actor is a “super-altruist”, then the corresponding coefficient is very small. Using these coefficients we get the general solution of the game in a form of some Pareto's equilibrium. The solution is stable and efficient. 相似文献
14.
In this paper, we analyze the relative importance and mutual behavior of two competing base-load electricity generation options
that each are capable of contributing significantly to the abatement of global CO 2 emissions: nuclear energy and coal-based power production complemented with CO 2 capture and storage (CCS). We also investigate how, in scenarios developed with an integrated assessment model that simulates
the economics of a climate-constrained world, the prospects for nuclear energy would change if exogenous limitations on the
spread of nuclear technology were relaxed. Using the climate change economics model World Induced Technical Change Hybrid,
we find that until 2050 the growth rates of nuclear electricity generation capacity would become comparable to historical
rates observed during the 1980s. Given that nuclear energy continues to face serious challenges and contention, we inspect
how extensive the improvements of coal-based power equipped with CCS technology would need to be if our economic optimization
model is to significantly scale down the construction of new nuclear power plants. 相似文献
15.
In the land ecosystem, the forest can absorb the carbon dioxide (CO 2) in the atmosphere and turn the CO 2 into organic carbon to store it in the plant body. About 2 × 10 11 tons of CO 2 changes through photosynthesis into organic matter by plant annually. In this research, ten kinds of woody plants were selected for assessing the carbon fixation ability influenced by sulfur dioxide (SO 2). The tested trees were put into a fumigation chamber for 210 days in a 40-ppb SO 2 environment. The results of this study showed that there was no clear symptom of tested trees under a 40-ppb SO 2 environment. The tested trees could tolerate this polluted environment, but it will impact their CO 2 absorption ability. The carbon fixation ability will reduce as the polluted period lengthens. The carbon fixation potential of tested trees ranged from 2.1 to 15.5 g·CO 2/m 2·d with an average of 7.7 g·CO 2/m 2·d. The changes in CO 2 absorption volume for Messerschmidia argentea were more stable during the fumigation period with a variation of 102%. Among the tested trees, Diospyros morrisiana had the best carbon fixation potential of 9.19 g·CO 2/m 2·d and M. argentea had the least with 2.54 g·CO 2/m 2·d. 相似文献
16.
A simple model has been designed to describe the interaction of climate and biosphere. Carbon dioxide, understood as a major
emitted gas, leads to a change of global climate. Economic interpretation of the model is based on the maximisation of the
global CO 2 cumulative emissions. The two most important profiles of emission have been obtained: optimal and multi-exponential suboptimal
profiles, each displaying different characteristics.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
17.
Vector-borne diseases are feared to extend their range in a future where global warming has occurred. There is considerable
concern about scourges such as malaria re-invading currently temperate regions and reaching into higher altitudes in Africa.
In this paper we examine the various factors thought to determine potential infectivity of malaria, and its actual outbreak
in the context of a dynamic integrated assessment model. We quantify: (i) the role of demographics in placing a larger population
in harms way; (ii) the role of climate change in increasing the potential geographic range and severity of the risk of infection;
and (iii) the role of economic and social development in limiting the occurrence of malaria. We then explore the climate and
economic implications of various climate policies in their effectiveness to limit potential infectivity of malaria. In illustration
of these issues we present the climate-related and economics-related impacts of unilateral CO 2 control by OECD on incidence of malaria in non-OECD nations. The model presented here, although highly stylized in its representation
of socio-economic factors, provides strong evidence of the role of socio-economic factors in determination of malaria incidence.
The case study offers insights into unintended adverse consequences of well-meaning climate policies.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
18.
Field experiments were conducted in open top chamber during rabi seasons of 2009–10 and 2010–11 at the research farm of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to study the effect of tropospheric ozone (O 3) and carbon dioxide (CO 2) interaction on yield and nutritional quality of Indian mustard ( Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.). Mustard plants were grown from emergence to maturity under different treatments: charcoal-filtered air (CF, 80–85 % less O 3 than ambient O 3 and ambient CO 2), nonfiltered air (NF, 5–10 % less O 3 than ambient O 3 and ambient CO 2 ), nonfiltered air with elevated carbon dioxide (NF?+?CO 2, NF air and 550?±?50 ppm CO 2), elevated ozone (EO, NF air and 25–35 ppb elevated O 3), elevated ozone along with elevated carbon dioxide (EO?+?CO 2, NF air, 25–35 ppb O 3 and 550?±?50 ppm CO 2), and ambient chamber less control (AC, ambient O 3 and CO 2). Elevated O 3 exposure led to reduced photosynthesis and leaf area index resulting in decreased seed yield of mustard. Elevated ozone significantly decreased the oil and micronutrient content in mustard. Thirteen to 17 ppm hour O 3 exposure (accumulated over threshold of 40 ppm, AOT 40) reduced the oil content by 18–20 %. Elevated CO 2 (500?±?50 ppm) along with EO was able to counter the decline in oil content in the seed, and it increased by 11 to 13 % over EO alone. Elevated CO 2, however, decreased protein, calcium, zinc, iron, magnesium, and sulfur content in seed as compared to the nonfiltered control, whereas removal of O 3 from air in the charcoal-filtered treatment resulted in a significant increase in the same. 相似文献
19.
China is currently the world's largest carbon dioxide (CO 2) emitter. Moreover, total energy consumption and CO 2 emissions in China will continue to increase due to the rapid growth of industrialization and urbanization. Therefore, vigorously developing the high–tech industry becomes an inevitable choice to reduce CO 2 emissions at the moment or in the future. However, ignoring the existing nonlinear links between economic variables, most scholars use traditional linear models to explore the impact of the high–tech industry on CO 2 emissions from an aggregate perspective. Few studies have focused on nonlinear relationships and regional differences in China. Based on panel data of 1998–2014, this study uses the nonparametric additive regression model to explore the nonlinear effect of the high–tech industry from a regional perspective. The estimated results show that the residual sum of squares (SSR) of the nonparametric additive regression model in the eastern, central and western regions are 0.693, 0.054 and 0.085 respectively, which are much less those that of the traditional linear regression model (3.158, 4.227 and 7.196). This verifies that the nonparametric additive regression model has a better fitting effect. Specifically, the high–tech industry produces an inverted “U–shaped” nonlinear impact on CO 2 emissions in the eastern region, but a positive “U–shaped” nonlinear effect in the central and western regions. Therefore, the nonlinear impact of the high–tech industry on CO 2 emissions in the three regions should be given adequate attention in developing effective abatement policies. 相似文献
20.
This study developed a reliable procedure to assess the carbon dioxide (CO 2) uptake of concrete by carbonation during the service life of a structure and by the recycling of concrete after demolition. To generalize the amount of absorbable CO 2 per unit volume of concrete, the molar concentration of carbonatable constituents in hardened cement paste was simplified as a function of the unit content of cement, and the degree of hydration of the cement paste was formulated as a function of the water-to-cement ratio. The contribution of the relative humidity, type of finishing material for the concrete surface, and the substitution level of supplementary cementitious materials to the CO 2 diffusion coefficient in concrete was reflected using various correction factors. The following parameters varying with the recycling scenario were also considered: the carbonatable surface area of concrete crusher-runs and underground phenomena of the decreased CO 2 diffusion coefficient and increased CO 2 concentration. Based on the developed procedure, a case study was conducted for an apartment building with a principal wall system and an office building with a Rahmen system, with the aim of examining the CO 2 uptake of each structural element under different exposure environments during the service life and recycling of the building. As input data necessary for the case study, data collected from actual surveys conducted in 2012 in South Korea were used, which included data on the surrounding environments, lifecycle inventory database, life expectancy of structures, and recycling activity scenario. Ultimately, the CO 2 uptake of concrete during a 100-year lifecycle (life expectancy of 40 years and recycling span of 60 years) was estimated to be 15.5%–17% of the CO 2 emissions from concrete production, which roughly corresponds to 18%–21% of the CO 2 emissions from the production of ordinary Portland cement. 相似文献
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