The means do not justify the ends: A comment on CALFED

The state-federal CALFED process was more successful in transforming the means of thinking about decisions regarding California Bay-Delta resource management than in achieving the desired policy ends. Case studies in this special issue document how CALFED helped change the dynamics between stakeholders and agency managers; between scientists and implementers; and between endangered species managers and water project operators. In most cases, however, the new relationships and agreements failed to achieve the desired policy outcomes. The new tools and approaches that CALFED fostered can complement and support – but not substitute for – the obligation of policy makers to honestly confront and resolve fundamental oppositions of interest over resource management issues.     

Marginalization by collaboration: Environmental justice as a third party in and beyond CALFED

Governance and planning of ecosystem and water management within the California Bay-Delta, a critical component of California's water economy, have been characterized by a range of innovations in collaboration and conflict resolution. Despite legal mandates to incorporate environmental justice, the California Bay-Delta Authority's (CBDA) policy-development process and the subsequent Delta Vision process have systematically marginalized the role of environmental justice in California's water policy. We suggest that environmental justice in Bay-Delta planning can be understood as a “third party” with a tenuous seat at the CALFED water management table. As such environmental justice is a useful lens through which to assess the state's broader commitments and capacities relative to equity as a planning principal and outcome. We interpret the fate of environmental justice within Bay-Delta planning as indicative of the inherent tensions between systems based on increasing market dominance and state legitimation and the values of environmental justice based on distributive, procedural, and cognitive justice. We construct a model of marginalization and environmental injustice in collaborative planning to illustrate these tensions. We draw upon experiences of members of the Environmental Justice Sub-Committee of CBDA's Bay Delta Public Advisory Committee, as well as interviews with other key environmental justice interests, and a comprehensive review of internal and public CBDA documents relating to the environmental justice program including budgets and program plans, and ethnographic field work. We conclude that by learning from the mistakes of Bay-Delta planning, a positive model of collaborative, environmental justice-based planning for water and ecosystem management is possible.     

Surprising cooperation despite apparently irreconcilable differences: Agricultural water use efficiency and CALFED

Much has been said about the need and benefits of consensus building for resolving disagreements about water and environmental management. Less has been said about how to better convene and facilitate those processes. This paper focuses on the latter, examining the challenges and breakthroughs encountered when decision-makers convene consensus building processes that seek an agreement among stakeholders who believe they have “apparently irreconcilable differences.” The research described here analyzes two multi-stakeholder, collaborative processes convened by the CALFED Bay-Delta Program (CALFED) on the issue of agricultural water use efficiency in the Sacramento and San Joaquin river watersheds of California. The first process made very little progress; however, stakeholder representatives in the second were able to forge an agreement that included significant innovation and surprising risk taking by all sides. Analyzing the two processes, this paper shows that the stakeholders, conveners, and facilitators in these processes had to do much more than make the discrete trades across interests envisioned in consensus building theory or reframing as described in theories about conflict and frames. Looking at the data, this paper shows how several concepts from outside consensus building—including boundary objects and interlanguage—along with less well-known concepts and issues within the consensus building literature—bricolage and representation—can provide insights into how the Steering Committee accomplished what it did. This paper introduces these additional concepts, how they mattered in this CALFED process, and suggests a complex set of interrelated insights into how future collaborative and integrative environmental programs can approach the most difficult environmental policy and management conflicts.     

Collaborative networks and new ways of knowing

To move beyond legal and regulatory gridlock around water issues in the California Bay-Delta, a new inter-agency initiative, commonly known as CALFED, was created in 1994. CALFED has been an ongoing experiment in policy innovation. Part of the change in management practice has involved constructing new arenas that engage multiple perspectives and transform regulatory impasse into provisional steps forward. We examine the construction of so-called boundary objects, which are forums and policy instruments that cross group boundaries and foster integrative deliberation. We compare the design and action of two boundary objects created by CALFED, namely the Environmental Water Account (EWA) and the Water Use Efficiency (WUE) program. We find that the presence of the boundary object, in itself, does little to explain the success of each policy experiment. Rather, the answer lies in the types of network interactions that result, along with the way meaning is coproduced. In fact, rather than create new patterns of interrelationship (e.g., between fish habitat advocates and pump station operators), the boundary object might further embed institutionalized routines. To more deeply understand what makes the new institution an integrative one, we introduce the concept of Ways of Knowing which explains how new knowledge emerges from the network of new relationships.     

Integrating scientific knowledge into large-scale restoration programs: the CALFED Bay-Delta Program experience

Integrating science into resource management activities is a goal of the CALFED Bay-Delta Program, a multi-agency effort to address water supply reliability, ecological condition, drinking water quality, and levees in the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta of northern California. Under CALFED, many different strategies were used to integrate science, including interaction between the research and management communities, public dialogues about scientific work, and peer review. This paper explores ways science was (and was not) integrated into CALFED's management actions and decision systems through three narratives describing different patterns of scientific integration and application in CALFED. Though a collaborative process and certain organizational conditions may be necessary for developing new understandings of the system of interest, we find that those factors are not sufficient for translating that knowledge into management actions and decision systems. We suggest that the application of knowledge may be facilitated or hindered by (1) differences in the objectives, approaches, and cultures of scientists operating in the research community and those operating in the management community and (2) other factors external to the collaborative process and organization.     

Collectively engaging complex socio-ecological systems: re-envisioning science, governance, and the California Delta

We address the future of science and governance for the California Delta, focusing on the CALFED Bay-Delta Program, an interagency, multi-stakeholder effort to understand and manage the Delta for multiple purposes. We portray a Delta history as a coevolutionary process between science, governance and ecosystems. Global integrated environmental assessments (IEA) provide insights into understanding complex, dynamic socio-ecological systems. Many of the discursive stakeholder and scientific activities that have arisen under CALFED are similar to IEA and remain essential to the shared learning needed to effectively interact with a dynamic Delta. More deliberately enmeshing environmental monitoring, analysis, and collective learning into Delta governance will improve outcomes.     

流域水资源冲突管理研究

在流域水资源开发利用与保护过程中，上下游各地区间以及各部门间的利益冲突问题，严重制约着流域水资源可持续开发与利用。该文从流域水资源管理的实际问题出发，针对这些利益冲突问题，提出了建立在流域水资源集成管理与冲突分析理论基础上的流域水资源冲突管理的理论框架，以及基于互联网的流域水资源冲突管理的协同工作平台的新思路。流域水资源冲突管理是流域水资源管理的一种革新，它以集成管理为指导思想，冲突管理为手段，以解决传统流域水资源管理很难解决的各种冲突问题。流域水资源冲突管理春协同工作平台，是缓解上下游各地区间以及各部门间的利益冲突，实现流域水资源持续开发利用唯一题。流域水资源冲突管理及其协同工作平台，是缓解上下游各地区间以及各部门间的利益冲突，实现流域水资源持续开发利用唯一途径，它的实施与推广必将提高流域水资源管理的效率，推动我国流域水资源集成管理的发展过程，促进水资源可持续开发与利用。     

Collaborative governance and adaptive management: Lessons from California's CALFED Water Program

Both for its technological and institutional innovations and for its history of conflicts, California's water system has been one of the most observed in the world. This article and this Special Issue on the CALFED Bay-Delta Program continue in this tradition. CALFED is likely the most ambitious experiment in collaborative environmental policy and adaptive management the world has seen to date. This Issue moves beyond the celebratory tone of other analyses of collaborative, adaptive management and looks closer into how collaborative networks work to produce innovation, and more importantly to reflect also on their inherent contradictions, limitations and “dark sides”. While collaborative governance enhances mutual understandings and can be a source of innovation, it appears ill-suited to resolve alone the distributive dilemmas at the core of many water – and other environmental – conflicts. A lacuna in existing research concerns the institutional design of effective boundaries and linkages between democratic politics, legitimate authority, and adaptive governance, i.e. the mix of institutions that can provide sufficient responsibility, accountability and democratic legitimacy, without choking off the self-organizing interaction, shared learning, and communication that is at the heart of collaboration. A painful realization in the Delta is that environmental conservation and further growth may be fundamentally at odds; efficient win–win solutions, institutional or technological, seem insufficient to satisfy the competing demands posed upon the system. Radical decisions and changes might be necessary, but they seem unlikely under current institutional arrangements and political conditions.     

Multilevel selection and social evolution of insect societies

How sterile, altruistic worker castes have evolved in social insects and how they are maintained have long been central topics in evolutionary biology. With the advance of kin selection theory, insect societies, in particular those of haplodiploid bees, ants, and wasps, have become highly suitable model systems for investigating the details of social evolution and recently also how within-group conflicts are resolved. Because insect societies typically do not consist of clones, conflicts among nestmates arise, for example about the partitioning of reproduction and the allocation of resources towards male and female sexuals. Variation in relatedness among group members therefore appears to have a profound influence on the social structure of groups. However, insect societies appear to be remarkably robust against such variation: division of labor and task allocation are often organized in more or less the same way in societies with high as in those with very low nestmate relatedness. To explain the discrepancy between predictions from kin structure and empirical data, it was suggested that constraints—such as the lack of power or information—prevent individuals from pursuing their own selfish interests. Applying a multilevel selection approach shows that these constraints are in fact group-level adaptation preventing or resolving intracolonial conflict. The mechanisms of conflict resolution in insect societies are similar to those at other levels in the biological hierarchy (e.g., in the genome or multicellular organisms): alignment of interests, fair lottery, and social control. Insect societies can thus be regarded as a level of selection with novelties that provide benefits beyond the scope of a solitary life. Therefore, relatedness is less important for the maintenance of insect societies, although it played a fundamental role in their evolution.Dedicated to Prof. Ernst Mayr     

Towards an inter-disciplinary research agenda on climate change, water and security in Southern Europe and neighboring countries

The Mediterranean and neighboring countries are already experiencing a broad range of natural and man-made threats to water security. According to climate projections, the region is at risk due to its pronounced susceptibility to changes in the hydrological budget and extremes. Such changes are expected to have strong impacts on the management of water resources and on key strategic sectors of regional economies. Related developments have an increased capacity to exacerbate tensions, and even intra- and inter-state conflict among social, political, ecological and economic actors. Thus, effective adaptation and prevention policy measures call for multi-disciplinary analysis and action.This review paper presents the current state-of-the-art on research related to climate change impacts upon water resources and security from an ecological, economic and social angle. It provides perspectives for current and upcoming research needs and describes the challenges and potential of integrating and clustering multi-disciplinary research interests in complex and interwoven human-environment systems and its contribution to the upcoming 5th assessment report of the IPCC.     

Phosphorus and nitrogen in soil, plants, and overland flow from sheep-grazed pastures fertilized with different rates of superphosphate

Eutrophication of waterways through delivery of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) from farmland is a problem in many countries. Loss of nutrients from grazed grassland via overland flow is well demonstrated, but the sources of these nutrients and the processes controlling their mobilization into water are not well understood. Much of the nutrient loss in overland flow from grazed pastures may be due to generally increased fertility of the soil–plant system (i.e. background or ‘systematic’ nutrient loss) rather than to immediate loss after fertilizer application [Nash, D., Clemow, L., Hannah, M., Barlow, K., Gangaiya, P., 2005. Modelling phosphorus exports from rain-fed and irrigated pastures in southern Australia. Aust. J. Soil Res. 43, 745–755]. The main aim of this study was to measure the effects of long-term (25 years) superphosphate (Ca(H₂PO₄)₂ + 2CaSO₄) fertilizer application (0–23 kg/(ha year)) on P and N in soil, plants, and potential background P and N movement in overland flow (generated using a rainfall simulator) from sheep-grazed pastures in southern Australia. Measurements were taken in autumn, under dry soil conditions, and in winter, under wet soil conditions, 12 and 15 months after the last fertilizer applications, respectively. Superphosphate application caused a strong increase in plant P, soil total P, Olsen P, and Colwell P; and a weaker increase in plant N, soil total N, and inorganic N (ammonium and nitrate). Soil P and N were concentrated in the surface 25 mm of soil. Soil water-extractable P, calcium chloride-extractable P, and calcium chloride organic P were in general only poorly associated with fertilizer application. The concentration of P and, to a lesser extent, the concentration of N in overland flow increased with increasing fertilizer application and showed strong seasonal differences (0.06–0.77 mg P/L and 0.6–5.5 mg N/L in autumn; 0.04–0.20 mg P/L and 0.4–1.7 mg N/L in winter). The P in overland flow was predominantly dissolved reactive P in autumn and particulate P in winter. The N in overland flow contained significant proportions of dissolved organic N, dissolved inorganic N (ammonium and nitrate), and particulate N. The concentrations of P and N in overland flow usually exceeded State water quality targets (<0.04 mg P/L and <0.90 mg N/L), suggesting that background losses of nutrients from these pasture systems could contribute to the eutrophication of waterways.     

Wood waste management practices and strategies to increase sustainability standards in the Australian wooden furniture manufacturing sector

This study assesses the wood waste generation and its associated true cost which Australian wooden furniture manufacturing companies encounter and are exposed to. The assessment aims to create awareness and facilitate understanding within the wooden furniture manufacturing industry about how much wood is wasted into the production process and how this is translated in financial terms, how wood waste can be reduced, what can and can't be recycled and what services are available to assist businesses with recycling. The results indicate that during processing, 7% up to 40–50% of the annual supply of wooden raw material become residues. The costs connected directly to these wastes represent 2–8% of the turnover.     

跨国水资源和谐开发十大关系法律初探

跨国水资源特有的属性使其对于一个国家具有多方面的利益,因跨国水资源开发而引发的矛盾日益凸显,针对这些矛盾以及可能引发的新争端,应对跨国河流的开发保护现状和未来利用计划以及涉及邻国利益可能引发的争端,有通盘的权衡和充分的认识,因此,结合相关法律,处理好跨国水资源开发中的十大关系将成为跨国水资源和谐开发的关键。具体包括:国家主权与水权之间的关系;国家主权与云雾等大气水之间的关系;下游流域国家之间的关系;先利用国家与后开发国家之间的关系;跨国地下水与地表水的关系;水资源公平利用与合理开发之间的关系;跨国水资源的冲突与国际合作之间的关系;利益分享与责任承担之间的关系;跨国水资源开发利用与水资源损害预防的关系;流域国家与非流域国家之间的关系等。在此基础上,中国在开发跨国河流时也应受到启发,做到既满足自身需要,又兼顾他国利益,以实现跨国水资源的和谐开发。     

Who should do what in environmental management? Twelve principles for allocating responsibilities

In environmental management there is often discussion on the allocation of responsibilities. Such discussions can continue for a long time and can form an obstacle for effective action. In this article twelve normative principles for the allocation of responsibilities are identified, coming from three different sources: the arguments used in discussions on responsibilities, Dutch and European law, and the environmental management literature. The principles are (1) capacity, (2) lowest social costs, (3) causation, (4) interest, (5) scale, (6) subsidiarity, (7) structural integration, (8) separation, (9) solidarity, (10) transparency, (11) stability (but not standstill), and (12) acquired rights. These principles point to fundamental tensions in environmental management and sometimes conflict with each other. At the same time they may help to resolve conflicts by providing common points of reference that are independent from the often conflicting interests of the discussants.     

调水工程生态补偿的分阶段推进战略

水质安全是调水工程顺利实施的关键,为此调水区背负巨大的调水工程的外部经济成本和社会发展代价,必须通过生态补偿政策进行内部化,然而调水工程涉及的范围广、时间长、利益主体多、资金投入大,难以通过一种手段或者现有某种方式建立长效的生态补偿机制。文章从调水工程生态补偿政策建立的目标、标准、责任分担与利益共享、补偿方式角度分析了生态补偿现状及存在的问题,提出了调水工程生态补偿的分阶段推进战略总体思路与实施构想,重点分析了各阶段生态补偿政策的制定标准和要求,为中线调水工程生态补偿政策制定提供了技术支持。     

What kinds of knowledge,knowing and learning are required for addressing resource dilemmas?: a theoretical overview

This paper considers what kinds of knowledge, knowing and learning are required for addressing resource dilemmas in the context of sustainable development. It also explains why and how the SLIM project focused on social learning for managing water resources. The range of learning theories that informed SLIM are discussed, as is the historical pattern of lineages, relationships and discontinuities among these and other theories. Whilst conceptions of social learning are contested, most perspectives raise questions about the nature of knowledge and knowing. It is argued that becoming aware of our assumptions regarding learning, knowing and how we develop knowledge, can help us find out more about what we need to know.The nature of resource dilemmas, implications for learning, what learning involves, its interdisciplinary nature and its history of ideas are all considered. An overview of learning theories is given, explaining their potential relevance for researchers, policymakers and practitioners in environmental contexts. The discourse, theory and practice of social learning and factors that influenced the choice of social learning theories by SLIM researchers are discussed. The paper concludes by considering how understanding what social learning involves can contribute, in a practical way, to dealing with resource dilemmas.     

Atmospheric deposition contributes little nutrient and sediment to stream flow from an agricultural watershed

Atmospheric deposition of nutrients within agricultural watersheds has received scant attention and is poorly understood compared to nutrient transport in surface and subsurface water flow pathways. Thus, we determined the deposition of phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), and sediment in a mixed land use watershed in south-central Pennsylvania (39.5 ha; 50% corn–wheat–soybean rotation, 20% pasture, and 30% woodland), in comparison with stream loads at several locations along its reach between 2004 and 2006. There was a significant difference in deposition rates among land uses (P < 0.05) with more P and N deposited on cropland (1.93 kg P and 10.71 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) than pasture (1.10 kg P and 8.06 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and woodland (0.36 and 2.33 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Although not significant, sediment showed the same trends among land uses. A significant relationship was found between P in deposition and P in soil <10-m away from the samplers suggesting much of the deposited sample was derived from local soil. Samplers adjacent to the stream channel showed deposition rates (1.64 kg P and 8.83 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) similar to those on cropland. However, accounting for the surface area of the stream, direct deposition of P, N, and sediment probably accounted for <3% of P and <1% of N and sediment load in stream flow from the watershed (1.41 kg P, 27.09 kg N, and 1343 kg sediment ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ at the outlet). This suggests that strategies to mitigate nutrient and sediment loss in this mixed-land use watershed should focus on runoff pathways.     

浅论用水合理化与污水资源化

随着经济建设的发展和人口的增加以及人民生活水平的提高 ,对用水的需求也不断增长 ,但水资源是有限的 ,有限的水资源与日益增长的用水量的矛盾日益突出 ,解决这个矛盾的办法就是要求人们要合理使用水和对水的重复利用即污水资源化 ,本文就用水合理化和污水资源化提出个人的看法和建议     

电除尘器在水泥厂烘干设备上的有效应用

针对水泥厂烘干机烟尘净化的电除尘设备存在的问题 ,提出了相应的解决措施 ,并例证了高压静电管式除尘器在烘干机除尘中的有效应用     

发展循环经济实现经济与环境的“双赢”

经济发展一方面为人类提供了空前丰富的物质产品，另一方面却生产出同样空前大量的废气、废水、废渣和噪声。要使经济发展与环境保护由对立走向统一，实现经济与环境的“双赢”，必须大力发展循环经济。分析了经济发展与环境保护对立的表现，阐述了经济发展与环境保护如何从对立走向统一，如何实现“双赢”。