The influence of crime prevention through environmental design on victimisation and fear of crime

People's perception of crime and incivilities vary considerably depending on their attitudes towards environmental conditions. This paper investigated the hypothesised relationships between Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED), victimisation and fear of crime. The checklist was administered by using on-site observation to measure the CPTED construct followed by a self-administered questionnaire to explore the residents' perceptions of victimisation and fear of crime in their area of residency. In all, 164 respondents from a selected group of residents were involved in this study. The structural equation modelling technique was employed and the results indicate that CPTED is negatively related to victimisation. The model also shows that there is a significant positive direct influence of victimisation on fear of crime. However, no direct significant relationship was found between CPTED and fear of crime, but a negative indirect relationship between CPTED and fear of crime was observed through victimisation.     

Women and biodiversity: The long journey from users to policy-makers

Although there has been a broad acknowledgment that women's local and traditional knowledge is fundamental to guarantee food security and conserve biological diversity, few women are represented at the managerial and decision‐making level of environmental movements and organizations. The United Nations, its agencies and agreements have long promoted the full and effective participation of women in decision‐making processes. So how can commitments contained in international agreements be translated into concrete actions? By using the case of the Convention on Biological Diversity, one of the key agreements adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, this article analyses how gender‐equitable initiatives tend to assume an ad hoc character with few governments effectively involving women in their sustainable development strategies. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the United Nations or its subsidiary bodies.     

Effects of signals of disorder on fear of crime in real and virtual environments

Despite the fact that virtual environments are increasingly deployed to study the relation between urban planning, physical and social disorder, and fear of crime, their ecological validity for this type of research has not been established. This study compares the effects of similar signs of public disorder (litter, warning signs, cameras, signs of vandalism and car burglary) in an urban neighborhood and in its virtual counterpart on the subjective perception of safety and livability of the neighborhood. Participants made a walking tour through either the real or the virtual neighborhood, which was either in an orderly (baseline) state or adorned with numerous signs of public disorder. During their tour they reported the signs of disorder they noticed and the degree to which each of these affected their emotional state and feelings of personal safety. After finishing their tour they appraised the perceived safety and livability of the environment. Both in the real and in the simulated urban neighborhood, signs of disorder evoked associations with social disorder. In all conditions, neglected greenery was spontaneously reported as a sign of disorder. Disorder did not inspire concern for personal safety in reality and in the virtual environment with a realistic soundscape. However, in the absence of sound disorder compromised perceived personal safety in the virtual environment. Signs of disorder were associated with negative emotions more frequently in the virtual environment than in its real-world counterpart, particularly in the absence of sound. Also, signs of disorder degraded the perceived livability of the virtual, but not of the real neighborhood. Hence, it appears that people focus more on details in a virtual environment than in reality. We conclude that both a correction for this focusing effect and realistic soundscapes are required to make virtual environments an appropriate medium for both etiological (e.g. the effects of signs of disorder on fear of crime) and intervention (e.g. CPTED) research.     

The British road to post war planning: the forty‐year journey to the 1947 town & country planning act

This paper analyses the currents which gave rise to the 1947 Town & Country Planning Act. It describes the main statutory events in the first half of the 20th century and considers the progress made in implementing the legislation. It is argued that, while the 1947 Act was a major advance on what went before, it is not a significant departure.     

The Commons in Transition: Agrarian and Environmental Change in Central and Eastern Europe

This paper analyzes institutional dynamics surrounding common-pool resources in postsocialist Central and Eastern Europe. It is conceived in close conjunction with the case studies by Penov, Schleyer, and Wasilewski and Krukowski (this issue). The purpose of this paper is to frame the individual case inquiries, compare their findings, and relate those to broader agrarian and environmental changes in the region.The case studies report a broad shift in resource governance from the previously dominant legal and administrative state hierarchies towards markets. In addition, state power has moved from central towards local authorities. The waning and decentralization of state power has caused the emergence of significant gaps between property legislation and rights-in-practice, which have been particularly stark in fragmented political systems. The discrepancy between legal texts and rights-in-practice leads to the exclusion of wider interests in favor of individual interests in the management of common-pool resources, resulting in resource deterioration and dwindling resource stocks. Thus, the comparative assessment suggests a tentative framework for understanding the effects of postsocialist transformations on governance of the commons and environmental change in Central and Eastern Europe. Its findings indicate an additional dimension to the diversity and distributive conflicts characterizing postsocialist privatization: the distribution of various rights to a resource among different actors. The findings also suggest the need for postsocialist states to take an active role in the governance of common-pool resources, particularly in the enforcement of legal rights. Note: This version was published online in June 2005 with the cover date of August 2004.     

The ecological context of student achievement: School building quality effects are exacerbated by high levels of student mobility

National reports along with numerous statewide studies indicate that the physical infrastructure of American schools is crumbling. At the same time there is emerging evidence that school building quality matters for children's academic achievement. We integrate two separate literatures that have demonstrated that low school building quality as well as high rates of student mobility each contribute to reduced academic achievement by showing that these two variables statistically interact. Elementary school children in 511 New York City public schools have lower achievement scores if they attend schools of poor structural quality and with high rates of student mobility. The significant main and interactive effects of school building quality and student mobility on standardized test scores occur independently of socioeconomic and racial composition of the school.     

Urban property values and contaminated sites: A hedonic analysis of Sydney, Nova Scotia

This study examines the impact of contaminated sites on urban property values in Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada. The property value effects are examined using an inverse distance specification from the property to the site. A hedonic method employing ordinary least-square technique was used for model estimation. The results show that the presence of contaminated sites has had significant negative effect on the value of residential property. This negative effect, however, is largely localized to within few hundred metres of the sites. The total property value loss in urban Sydney from the contaminated sites is estimated to be $CDN 36 million.     

Parental perception of social risk and of positive potentiality of outdoor autonomy for children: The development of two instruments

An important factor that limits children's autonomy outdoors is parental perception of social danger and traffic danger. To obtain quantitative instruments for these dimensions, this work aimed to explore the validity and reliability of three scales. Two of them describe, respectively, problematic aspects of the area of residence linked to traffic and situations of social degradation that could constitute risk factors for the child's psychological and physical safety (Traffic Danger Perception Scale, Social Danger Perception Scale). The third scale investigates parental perception of the positive potentiality of outdoor autonomy for children's maturation and growth. Interviews were conducted with 377 mothers of children between 8 and 10 years of age residing in six different areas in Italy. The results indicated weak reliability of the Traffic Danger Perception Scale, which requires further investigation, and they confirmed the reliability and the construct validity of the Social Danger Perception Scale and the Perception of Positive Potentiality of Outdoor Autonomy for Children Scale. The perception of social danger was higher in mothers who live in larger urban contexts and who have more personal fear of crime and a lower sense of community. The positive perception of children's autonomy of movement was higher among mothers who live in greener areas, who have a greater sense of community and who have more neighbourhood relations.     

Land Conversion for Suburban Housing: A Study of Urbanization Around Warsaw and Olsztyn,Poland

In Poland of the 1990s, urban demand for housing land around city agglomerations increased rapidly. The decreasing profitability of agricultural production also caused farmers to become interested in the sale of agricultural land for nonagricultural purposes, and new land legislation granted them the right to sell their land. Polish counties simultaneously received self-governing status, which allowed them to define the priorities for local development. Counties received additional responsibility for land management and quickly demonstrated strong support for land conversion, which was perceived as a factor of local development. This paper argues that decentralization and the extension of private control over land have led to a loss of rural landscapes in Poland because farmers, county governments, and rural society in general gained from the conversion of agricultural to housing land. Rapid urbanization has significantly reduced the availability of open space around cities and threatened valuable landscapes, for it has occurred in the absence of environmental safeguards. This paper reports findings from research in two counties, located in regions with diverse economic growth rates. Decentralization is particularly problematic if tax regulations and intergovernmental fiscal relations reward local authorities for urbanization but not environmental protection. Note: This version was published online in June 2005 with the cover date of August 2004.     

Urban land use,mobility and theory of science: exploring the potential for critical realism in empirical research

Academic discussion where the adequacy of positions within theory of science is illustrated by means of examples from empirical research studies seems to be an area of neglect. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to such a debate, using examples from investigations into the relationship between urban structure and travel behaviour. The main research question of these investigations was whether, and to what extent, urban structural conditions are influencing residents' transportation activity. In other words, is there a causal relationship between urban structure and travel behaviour? Furthermore, we asked whether results from studies of the relationship between land use and transport can provide a basis for predictions about the likely consequences of alternative land-use strategies. The methodology and empirical findings of the studies are discussed in the light of the theory of science position labelled ‘critical realism’, in an attempt to relate theory of science to empirical research, but also in order to contribute to the discussion of the usefulness of this specific approach. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When mobility makes sense: A qualitative and longitudinal study of the daily mobility of the elderly

A majority of North Americans hopes to grow old in the suburbs. This aspiration depends upon their ability to drive and their access to a car. Because it is essential for everyday travel, car-mobility in the suburbs is becoming a symbolic goal. The meanings of mobility for elderly will evolve over time, notably as a result of changes in autonomy. However, the mobility of older adults is mainly understood in terms of daily trips. Little research has considered the temporal dimension of aging as an evolving process. This study aimed at understanding with a qualitative and longitudinal perspective how older people stay (auto-)mobile in their house and their neighborhood against the need to adapt to reduced autonomy and mobility over time. A group of 22 suburbanites aged from 62 to 89 was interviewed in 1999 and in 2006. The results show that even if older people succeed in increasing their mobility, they are headed for inevitable immobility. Among the environmental adaptation strategies that were observed, the constructed behaviors, the dependencies demanding additional supports as well as the social life modulate different evolving experiences of the city: the shrinking city, the fragmented city, and the city by proxy. The built environment is at the heart of a complex process in which the adaptation of mobility contributes to the emergence of new residential experiences.     

Property rights and grassland degradation: a study of the Xilingol pasture, Inner Mongolia, China

The semi-private property rights arrangement called the Household Production Responsibility System (HPRS) was started in the early 1980s in Xilingol pasture of Inner Mongolia (China), and stimulated the development of stockbreeding. The grassland has been degrading severely with increasing numbers of livestock. Based on a historical review of property rights regimes in Inner Mongolia and empirical surveys in Xilingol pasture during 2001-2003, this paper assesses the implementation of HPRS and its impacts on incomes of households as well as the environmental impact on the grassland. It was found that HPRS does not mitigate the "Tragedy of the Commons", instead it has exacerbated the situation. It was also found that co-management of grassland and livestock among a few households presents a sustainable use of grassland to develop livestock breeding. We conclude with the recommendation that small-scale collective property rights systems should be encouraged in Xilingol pasture of Inner Mongolia.     

Light distribution in dynamic street lighting: Two experimental studies on its effects on perceived safety,prospect, concealment,and escape

The relationship between light and perceived safety at night is intuitively strong, yet theoretically and empirically its workings are largely unknown. Intelligent dynamic road lighting, which continuously adapts to the presence and behavior of users, can light the street only when and where it is needed. As such, it offers a solution to the energy waste and luminous pollution associated with conventional road lighting. With this innovation, however, new questions emerge about the effect of lighting on perceived safety. We need to consider not only how much lighting pedestrians need to feel safe, but also which parts of the street should be lit. In two experiments, we investigated the effect of different light distributions on perceived safety, and explored mediation by people's appraisal of three safety-related cues suggested in the literature: prospect (having an overview), escape (perceived escape possibilities), and refuge/concealment (perceived hiding places for offenders). Both experiments, one with stationary and one with walking participants, demonstrated that people prefer having light in their own immediate surroundings rather than on the road that lies ahead. This could be explained, partially, by changes in prospect, escape, and concealment. Against expectations, prospect was higher with lighting distributions in which participants' immediate surroundings, but not the more distant parts of the road, were most strongly lit.     

Study of Fractionation and Potential Mobility of Metal from the Guadalquivir Estuary: Changes in Mobility with Time and Influence of the Aznalcollar Mining Spill

This study analyzed the evolution of metal levels in surface sediments from the Guadalquivir estuary between 1997 and 2002 and assessed the impact of the April 1998 Aznalcollar tailings dam failure and subsequent cleanup on metal concentrations in surface sediments. We also analyzed metal distribution with time in five chemical fractions of the surface sediments: exchangable, carbonate, reducible, oxidizable, and residual. This work showed that the April 1998 Aznalcollar tailings dam failure caused a considerable increase in the concentrations of Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb in the surface sediments of the Guadalquivir estuary. It was also found there was a change in the distribution of Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb between the chemical fractions of the sediment after the failure of the dam. There were increases in the percentages of Cd in the carbonate fraction, of Zn and Pb in the reducible fraction, and of Cu in the oxidizable fraction, whereas the percentages of these elements associated with the residual fraction decreased. In 1999, there was a decrease in the metal concentrations in the surface sediments from the Guadalquivir estuary, and by 2000 the chemical distribution and metal levels had returned to levels similar those before the dam failure.     

Greenhouse effect and coastal wetland policy: How Americans could abandon an area the size of Massachusetts at minimum cost

Climatologists generally expect an anthropogenic global warming that could raise sea level 30–150 cm in the next century and more thereafter. One of the impacts would be the loss of coastal wetlands. Although the inundation of adjacent dryland would enable new wetlands to form, much of this land is or will soon be developed. If developed areas are protected, wetlands will be squeezed between an advancing sea and the land being protected, which has already happened in China and the Netherlands, where people have built dikes for centuries. Unlike those countries, the United States has enough land to accommodate the landward migration of wetlands; but governments lack the funds to purchase all the coastal lowlands that might be inundated and the legal authority to prohibit their development. We propose a third approach: allowing property owners to use coastal lowlands today as they choose, but setting up a legal mechanism to ensure that the land is abandoned if and when sea level rises enough to inundate it. Although compensation may be required, this approach would cost less than 1% as much as purchasing the land, and would be (1) economically efficient by enabling real estate markets to incorporate expectations of future sea level rise; (2) constitutional by compensating property owners; and (3) politically feasible by pleasing people who care about the long-term fate of the coastal environment without disturbing people who either are unconcerned about the distant future or do not believe sea level will rise. This article demonstrates that it would be irrational to delay policy formulation until sea level rise projections are more precise. The cost will be small if we act now but great if we wait, and sea level is already rising along most coasts. The US government should develop a strategy in the next three years. The opinions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of EPA and no official endorsement should be inferred.     

Sustainability and materiality: The bioregional and cultural challenges to evaluation

The current debate on indicators for sustainability and life-cycle assessment of materials relies heavily on universalised systems theory, first developed by Bertalanffy in the 1950s. Various ecolabelling and environmental auditing schemes have attempted to account for all the variables required to measure the sustainability of a given product or material in relation to its resource use. The aim has always been to try and harmonise standards used to facilitate trade regardless of location and using a standard neo-classical economic framework. This paper questions the hegemonic position that synchronic systems analysis currently enjoys by proposing an alternative approach that recognises evolving and relative standards based on localised cultural and economic valuation. This alternative approach is underpinned by the concept of bioregionalism which combines physical, economic and cultural mapping of local resources using local parameters and evaluation methods. Recent bioregional research into local information on environmentally benign materials in Aberdeenshire, Scotland is used to illustrate one way of bringing a meaningful regional framework back into the debate on indicators of sustainability in relation to materiality.     

The MTBE Threat to Our Water Supply: How to Detect and Remediate It

Methyl tertiary butyl ether, a gasoline additive once used to reduce air pollution, is now contaminating water sources around the United States. Monitoring for this chemical—and remediating it where it is found—should be an environmental priority. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Development aid: The moral obligation to innovation

The prominent, though not exclusive, role of basic needs strategies to attain ethically acceptable development goals raises the question of the ability of development agencies to find and employ basic needs strategies. The obligation to prevent severe human suffering leads to the obligation to employ basic needs strategies to attain basic needs goals. The history of failure by development agencies in finding and employing basic needs tools leads to a further obligation to cultivate bureaucratic environments which foster profound innovation. This requires not only new tools but also new bureaucratic behaviour. An understandable obstacle to simultaneously technological and bureaucratic innovation lies in the tension between responsible behaviour and behaviour promoting fundamental change. Since this tension is based on the unpredictability of creative change, a series of axioms and corollaries which reduce the unpredictability is given. They include: (1) an obligation to seek innovation; (2) a clear statement of basic needs goals and intent to use some basic needs tools; (3) increase in effective knowledge of the poor and their survival strategies; (4) bureaucratic learning flexibility; (5) participatory development and allied emphasis on sustainable resource technologies. The embodiment of these in the learning process approach is illustrated.     

Managing Abandoned Farmland: The Need to Link Biological and Sociological Aspects

The lack of a particular use associated with abandoned farmland provides real opportunities with respect to the various land-use pressures occurring in productive territories. These environments remain generally poorly known and, because of this, require in-depth studies on the feasibility of management options, on biological as well as social grounds. This study, based on research on the biophysical potential and the perceptions by the owners of abandoned farmlands, analyzes the feasibility of silvicultural management options to improve forestry potential. Using a questionnaire, we surveyed abandoned farmland owners on different aspects of the status of their abandoned farmland in order to determine their willingness toward the management of these private lands. The land owners were also asked to express their interests and their constraints toward various types of interventions, with an emphasis on silvicultural work. The data were analyzed using multivariate methods to establish relationships between the questionnaire data and the characteristics of the land owners (socioeconomic profile and value system toward the environment). The results show that, in general, abandoned farmland is an unwanted space, is generally little used, is poorly known, and has little importance in the plans of its owners. We have found three types of owner profiles; the owners with a farmer’s profile are those who are the most interested in managing their abandoned farmland, whether for agriculture or silviculture. The desire to improve abandoned farmland seems less important to owners with an ecocentric profile (high awareness of the environment) and to older owners. Finally, by associating the type of abandoned farmland owned and the characteristics of the owners, it is possible to propose different management options that reconcile the wishes of the owners as well as the biophysical potential of their abandoned farmland.