Schwermetalle in Regenwürmern Baden-Württembergs

Goal and Scope

The heavy metal burden of the soil and of earthworms from representative long-term forest observation plots has been measured since 1984 as one component of the media-embracing environmental monitoring network of the State of Baden-Wuerttemberg. These investigations are aimed at elucidating and assessing adverse effects of pollutants on the soil biocenosis

Methods

So-called characteristic curves for the metals Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn were developed for the assessment. Earthworm toxicity data and background values in soil served as criteria. This procedure facilitates a comparative assessment of different pollutants. The mobility of the metals, which greatly influences their bioavailability and toxicity, was taken into account for the effects assessment.

Results and Conclusion

Besides inventorying the heavy metals (Part 1), the question of threshold values for toxic reactions as well as for accumulation was raised. The metal concentrations were assessed in the soil with regard to its habitat function. The ecotoxicological assessment revealed that the heavy metal burden of the investigated plots lies within the background- or precautionary range, well below the screening value established here to indicate the effect threshold in earthworms. This result means that a pollution of the forest observation plots with the metals cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc is low or absent. Only the distribution of the lead content is centered slightly above background (but clearly below the toxicity threshold). This slight lead burden of the soil of the observation plots can be explained by emissions from motor vehicles. Investigations at sites that are contaminated with either chromium or copper or cadmium showed that an accumulation of these metals in the body of the worms can be observed only above a threshold concentration of several hundred micrograms of mobile metal per kilogram in the upper layer of the soil.

Recommendations and Perspectives

The hitherto unknown threshold values for the accumulation in the body of the earthworm should be statistically validated and extended to other elements. Further research is needed in order to build a well founded basis for the ecotoxicological assessment of soil pollution. Acute and chronic earthworm effect thresholds are neither available yet for arsenic, cobalt, and mercury nor for some other elements occurring less frequently as soil pollutants. Background values depending on the kind of rock have been measured so far for total chromium only. They are lacking for the more toxic chromium (VI) which is a frequent soil pollutant but naturally occurs in traces only.     

Schwermetalle in Regenwürmern Baden-Württembergs

Goal and Scope

Since 1984 the Environmental Protection Agency (LfU) of the State of Baden-Wuerttemberg has been investigating the heavy metal burden of earthworms from representative long-term forest observation plots. These investigations are aimed at elucidating and assessing adverse effects of pollutants on the soil biocenosis.

Methods

At first only lead and cadmium were measured in the worms; in repetitive measurements over the years further metals or metalloid elements such as aluminum, arsenic, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, mercury, nickel, thallium, vanadium, and zinc were added to the agenda.

Results and Conclusion

The frequency distribution of the metals in the earthworms was characterized statistically. For the first time state-wide background values, normal values and threshold values were established for all the elements measured. A comparable study with a similar range of parameters is known neither nationally nor internationally. Time trend studies have been available for lead and cadmium since 1985/86, and for zinc since 1987. The studies show a steady decrease of the heavy metals on a state-wide average and especially in the ‘Odenwald’ and ‘Black Forest’ hills with their formerly highly polluted earthworm habitats. Today, the level of these metals in the earthworms is low with few exceptions. This holds true for other heavy metals as well.

Recommendations and Perspectives

The state-wide decreasing very low heavy metal burden of forest observation plots far from known emission sources can be considered a success of air pollution abatement measures. Because of the ongoing atmospheric deposition of heavy metals, regular observation should continue in order to estimate time trends and to recommend the reduction of emissions when precautionary values (part 2) are exceeded.     

Treibhausgas-Emissionen zukünftiger Erdgas-Bereitstellung für Deutschland

Background

Natural gas makes a significant contribution to the current energy supply and its importance, in relation to both the German and worldwide energy supplies, will increase further in decades to come. In addition to its high degree of efficiency, the low level of direct GHG combustion emissions is also an advantageous factor. However, around 90% of natural gas is methane (CH₄), which is the second most significant GHG due to its high greenhouse potential (21 times higher than CO₂). Therefore, high levels of direct gas losses of natural gas in its production, processing, transport and distribution could neutralise its low emission advantages. This is particularly apparent when considering the growing distances between production and use, the demanding production processes and the upcoming worldwide market for LNG (liquefied natural gas).

Aim

This paper aims to analyse and illustrate the future GHG emissions of the whole process chain of natural gas (indirect emissions) to be supplied to the German border over the next 2 decades. This should allow the comparison of total GHG emissions (indirect and direct) of natural gas with the GHG emissions of other fossil fuels. By considering likely changes in gas origin as well as dynamic changes in the infrastructure and technology of gas production, processing and transport until 2030, all relevant factors are included. The study focuses on the emissions of Russian natural gas as Russia is already, and will be in the future, the most important gas supplier to the German and European gas markets.

Results and Discussion

The analysis illustrates a significant change in the gas supply over the next two decades. The EU Gas Fields are in decline and it is predicted that these will run dry. In parallel the share of Russian and Norwegian natural gas, and also the levels of LNG production (e.g. from Algeria or Egypt), will increase. Although the potential for GHG emissions tends to grow as a result of greater transport distances and demanding production and processing activities, high investment in necessary mitigation options (e.g. through replacing older and inefficient technology; updating to state-of-the-art technology) may neutralise the increase. The overall result of these counteracting trends will be to decrease GHG emissions, in a range of around 12% per TJ of direct emissions of natural gas, depending on the level of investment in the modernisation of the Russian gas infrastructure and the improvements of the LNG process. In the two given scenarios the indirect emissions of the natural gas used in Germany will decrease from about 23 million t CO₂-eq (2005) to 19.5 or 17.6 million t CO₂-eq in the year 2030. In spite of a significant higher gas consumption the emissions are reduced in the first scenario due to technical modifications. In the second scenario the emission reduction is based on the lower gas consumption.

Conclusions

At present, the indirect GHG emissions of the natural gas process chain are comparable to the indirect emissions produced by oil and coal. The emission trend of the natural gas process chain will markedly decrease if the mitigation options are followed consistently. However, in order to ensure the long-term security of natural gas supply for future decades, a high level of investment is essential. With regard to future emissions, the best available technology and, therefore, that which is most economically feasible in the long term, should be used. Under these conditions natural gas — as the fossil fuel with the lowest levels of GHG emissions — can play a major role in the transition to a renewable energy supply for the future.     

Teil I: Das Osnabrücker Umweltmanagement-Modell für Hochschulen

Through their use of energy and materials, universities cause a great deal of environmental pollution which could be reduced considerably by an effective choice of organizational and technical measures. There are some examples for environmental protection measures at several universities, but a professional environmental management system (EMS) for universities with a systematic approach to reduce the consumption of resources is lacking. At the University of Osnabrück, the basis for an EMS applicable for a university has been developed for the first time in Germany and the use of this system can also be transferred to other universities. The EMS is composed of ten building blocks, for example, alteration of the administration’s organizational structure, adoption of environmental guidelines, analysis of the energy and material flows which result in an eco-balance, an environmental program or measures to inform the staff and to help to involve them in environmental management. Over the next months, these ten building blocks will gradually be implemented at the University of Osnabrück. Five articles will provide an overview about the EMS developed for the University of Osnabrück as a whole and will describe parts of the material and energy flow analysis, and the planned environmental information system.

Part I: An Environmental Management Model for Universities: From Environmental Guidelines to the Involvement of Employees

Part II: The Energy Balance of the University of Osnabrück: Analysis of the Energy Flows and Conclusions

Part III: The Traffic Balance of the University of Osnabrück: Calculation of the Environmental Pollution which is caused by the University’s Commuters and Business Trips

Part IV: A Concept of Waste Reduction for the University of Osnabrück: Constructing the Waste Balance and Measures to Inform and Involve the Staff

Part V: The Planned Environmental Information System of the University of Osnabrück: Concept and Integration into the Management Information System

     

Nativ-basierte Grundöle für die Produktion von Kühlschmierstoffen

Aims and Scope

Compared to mineral oil products, cooling lubricants based on fatty acid esters have technological advantages. Moreover, they are more environmentally compatible and make a contribution to a sustainable economy. Nevertheless, they are rarely applied in practice, because of their comparably high price, that is based on raw-material and synthesis costs. Alternatives concerning raw-materials and synthesis pathways are considered and properties of resulting ester products are compared.

Methods

The investigations aimed at three fatty acid-2-ethyl-hexylesters that were synthesized in an enzymatic-catalytic routine based on peanut oil, suet, and waste edible fat and at esters that were conventionally produced from animal and plant fats and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. Physical properties, fatty acid patterns, contents of free fatty acids, as well as oxidative and hydrolytic stabilities were determined. Thermolysis experiments were performed.

Results

The physical properties of the seven esters, density, viscosity, pourpoint, and flash point, were comparable and gave reason for the assumption, that the products could be used as basis oils in lubricant formulations. Hydrolysis stabilities of the esters were high and thermal stress did not point at high potential of hazardous compounds formation. Especially the enzymatic-catalytically produced esters showed deficits concerning oxidation stabilities and free fatty acid contents.

Outlook

For practice it will be necessary to define minimum qualities for raw-materials and resulting ester oils to be used as lubricant basis oils. Moreover, processes have to be developed, that yield high quality ester products from waste edible and animal fats without loosing the advantage of low-cost raw-materials by high production and refinement costs. Surely, one contribution is the further development of the energy-saving enzymtic alcoholysis for ester production.     

Müllverbrennungs-Schlacke als Baumaterial

In order to determine the possible depreciation of its quality as a building material, solid waste residues from a municipal solid waste incinerator were analysed in a case study for its contents of various organic fractions with special emphasis on fractions which can be utilised by microbes as carbon sources. Furthermore, microbial concentrations in ashes, microbial fermentation and pH dependent viability of soil microbes in extracts of ashes were determined. Results demonstrate a low content of organic fractions in the solid waste, especially of those which can serve as C-sources for soil microbes. Microbial concentrations and rates of fermation in the ash are extremely low. The former is not only limited by the availability of suitable C-sources, but also by the alkaline pH of and the heavy metal concentration in the soil solution. Model calculations confirm that the maximal possible gas formation is extremely low and therefore does not diminish the quality of the incinerator ash as a potential building material.     

Entwicklung von Prüfwertempfehlungen für ausgewählte Schadstoffe zum Schutz des Bodens als Lebensraum für Bodenorganismen

Goal and Scope

In the German Federal Soil Protection and Contaminated Sites Ordinance there are no ecotoxicological trigger values for the protection of soil as a habitat for soil organisms. The objective of this study was to derive preliminary trigger values for the habitat function of soils. This was done by collecting data on the impact of priority pollutants on soil organisms and plants followed by the parallel use of the Factorial Application Method (FAME) and Distribution Based Extrapolation (DIBAEX) and a final verification of the plausibility of the calculated trigger values by means of an ecotoxicological test battery.

Methods

Data on the effects of pollutants on soil organisms and plants were recorded in a specific data base (Soil Value). Subsequently, we derived so-called ‘working trigger values’ using the extrapolation methods FAME (factorial application method) and DIBAEX (distribution based extrapolation). In the second phase of the project, we verified experimentally the plausibility of these values by means of an ecotoxicological test battery. Test substrate was a sandy soil with low sorption capacity and organic carbon content which was mixed with fresh pollutants (e.g. heavy metal salts) and polluted soil material from contaminated sites (aged contamination), respectively. Organisms tested were microorganisms, plants, earthworms, springtails and nematodes.

Results and Conclusions

We calculated working trigger values for 12 pollutants based on 900 datasets compiled in he data base. The laboratory investigations showed the freshly added contaminants to be less strongly adsorbed to the soil than those added by the use of contaminated soil material. Nevertheless, aged contaminations displayed often the same inhibitive effects as the freshly added chemicals. The results achieved in the second phase of the project were also recorded in the Soil-Value database. Based on the new data set, final trigger values were derived for the experimentally tested substances.

Outlook

The procedure described in this contribution exemplarily for copper can be used for the derivation of recommended trigger values for the pathway soil ? soil organisms. Besides copper, preliminary trigger values were derived for zinc, mercury, lead and HCH.     

Elbehochwasser 2002 — Ein Rückblick

Objective

Flood sediments were investigated due to the extreme flood situation around Dresden in August 2002

Method

The samples have been analyzed by screening inorganic and organic pollutants.

Results

It was observed that As, Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, B and other heavy metals as well as DDT, PCB and Benzo [a] pyren were significantly enriched.

Conclusion

Depending on geogenic and anthropogenic impacts, the spatial distribution of these contaminants was different. Organic compounds were dislocated down stream from Czech Republic along the Elbe River. Because of the old ore mining, samples near the Mulde and Wei\eritz Rivers showed high metal pollution.

Perspective

More detailed and systematic investigations should be undertaken in the Elbe and Mulde river systems.     

Grüne Gentechnik – Kritik eines Bewertungsmodells

In Germany, genetic engineering is a very controversial technology. Politicians request more functional discussion and rational assessment. This paper discusses a prominent assessment model of GM-Technology. It examines the methodological structure of the model and the validity of its arguments, in particular how the norms used in the model are developed.     

Der Fischrückgang in der oberen Donau

Background During the last years, a decrease in fish populations has been documented for several river systems in Europe and North America. Since more than 20 years, similar developments have been documented for the upper Danube River between Sigmaringen and Ulm. The grayling (Thymallus thymallus) represents one of the most affected fish species in the upper Danube, and notable decrease has also been recorded for other species such as the European barbel (Barbus barbus). Despite intensive and continuous stocking and improvement of water quality along the Danube since the 1970s, this negative development of fish populations could not be stopped. Aim This article has been designed to give an overview on various investigations into the decline of fish in the upper Danube River. The major focus of this paper is on the presentation of a weight-of-evidence study carried out since 2003 at the Department of Zoology at the University of Heidelberg. Results and discussion During the 1920s, major parts of the upper Danube River were corrected, thus causing dramatic changes in the hydromorphology of the river. The macrozoobenthos, which represents an important source of nutrition for several fish species, depends on the morphological conditions of a river; recent investigations, however, could not show any dramatic changes in macrozoobenthos composition. Earlier investigations of the Danube River primarily focused on water quality, which has, indeed, been continuously improved by extensive modernization of wastewater treatment plants. Contamination by priority organic pollutants in sediments was not given any attention until the mid 1990s, when a clear decline of, e.?g., PAH concentrations were documented. However, results of more recent analyses showed very high PAH concentrations in two sediment samples (Schwarzach Σ 16 PAHs = 26 mg/kg; Öpfingen Σ 16 PAHs = 5 mg/kg). In 2002, the first ecotoxicological investigations were performed at the upper Danube River. The results of a pilot study showed a high ecotoxicological burden for selected sampling sites. As a conclusion of this study, a weight-of-evidence investigation was initiated to make an attempt to identify major pollutants and possible causes for the fish decline. In addition to, e.?g., liver ultrastructure analyses in barbel, the micronucleus test was used as a definite mutagenicity test using erythrocytes and liver samples. The results of the different in vitro tests showed very good correlation well with in situ parameters. Outlook The investigations within this weight-of-evidence study showed that the pollution situation of the Danube is, indeed, significant enough to potentially affect fish populations. However, further investigations are needed to clarify the specific causes for the fish decline. A bioassay-directed fractionation study is underway to identify specific pollutants as well as their sources. This study will also assess the endocrine disrupting potential of Danube sediments via histopathological analyses of gonads of field fish in combination with different in vitro tests. Furthermore, in the planned joint project COMPSEARCH, comparative investigations will evaluate the ecotoxicological hazard potential of different pollution sources and consequences of changes in land use.     

SETAC GLB — Gründung und Entwicklung

Goal, Scope, and Background

In the context of the ISO-standardisation of the in vitro micronucleus test for (waste) water testing (ISO/DIS 21427-2), a national collaborative study was organized by the German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) involving ten laboratories of private companies, universities and public authorities. The formation of micronuclei (MN) is a special kind of chromosomal aberration. To meet the standardisation requirements for this method, encoded waste water samples, some of them spiked with known genotoxins, had to be tested in a collaborative study. The study should demonstrate practicability of the in vitro micronucleus test for waste water testing and should provide validity data.

Material and Methods

The micronucleus assay was performed with the permanently growing Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cell line V79. Four encoded samples from one municipal and one industrial wastewater treatment plant were tested with and without metabolic activation by S9-mix. Two of these samples were spiked in advance with defined concentrations of the clastogenic substances cyclophosphamide and mytomycin C. The defined assessment criterion for genotoxicity was the lowest dilution of a sample that does not show any significant induction of micronuclei (LID; lowest ineffective dilution). Cytotoxicity was judged by determining the survival-index, i.e. the percentage growth rate of the cells compared with the respective negative controls. As supplementary qualitative criteria, the mitotic index and the proliferation index were assessed.

Results

Although some of the laboratories had little or even no experience with the protocol of the in vitro micronucleus test described in the ISO-draft, all participants suceeded in establishing the assay within few weeks and in generating viable test results. The two nongenotoxic samples were detected as negative by 90% or 100% of the participants. The mitomycin C-spiked sample (expected to be positive without S9 supplementation) was correctly evaluated as positive by all laboratories. The cyclophosphamide-spiked sample (expected to be positive with S9 supplementation) was evaluated correctly as genotoxic by 80% of the laboratories. A post-test analysis found evidence that the false-negative results were due to technical failure, but not of a methodological nature. The sample LID values varied by no more than one dilution step around the median LID-value for all samples investigated. The survival index was proven to be a robust measure for estimation of cytotoxicity.

Discussion

The measurement of micronuclei is an important parameter for the detection of cytogenetic damage. In contrast to the single-cell gel electrophoresis assay (Comet assay), which is used as an indicator test, the in vitro micronucleus test detects non-repairable and thus manifested genetic damage. Consequently, the in vitro micronucleus test can be regarded as the more significant test system. A more frequent occurrence of micronuclei in treated cells suggests a risk of severe genetic damage for subsequent cell generations. In the interest of a precautionary environmental protection and health protection no municipal or industrial waste-water samples should show any significant induction of micronuclei in the treated cell populations.

Perspectives

The presented collaborative study was the first interlaboratory comparison of the in vitro micronucleus test using wastewater samples. The test system is intended to complement the already DIN- and ISO-standardised bacterial tests, i.e. the umu-test and the Ames plate incorporation assay. The data generated in the course of this project justify the transformation of the draft standard into the final draft international standard (FDIS), the preliminary stage of an international norm, so that a valid, standardised test system for the detection of cukaryotic genotoxicity in water samples might become available.     

Immissionsbelastungen im Umfeld des Flughafens München

The airborne immissions in the eastern surroundings to the new Munich airport have been investigated by means of different analytical methods between 1992 and 1995. For a detection of environmental impacts, bioindicators were applied to determine the pollution by PAH and to quantify the pollution by photooxidants. In addition, the PAH content in the upper soil layer was determined. During high pressure weather periods in summer the actual air pollution was investigated in the course of seven measuring campaigns. The PAH pollution of the soil is typical for rural background sites with highest concentrations in the close vicinity of busy roads, and exhibits no temporary trend. The actual input of PAH does not differ from the typical situation of rural regions in Bavaria at any measuring sites at all. Road traffic can be identified as the main PAH source in summer, whereas the considerably higher pollution in winter can be related to domestic heating. The pollution by photooxidants was found to be rather homogeneous throughout the eastern surroundings to the airport, being lowest at the sites directly influenced by road traffic. The pollution by volatile hydrocarbons at a busy road junction in the city of Erding is considerably higher than in the rural vicinity of the airport. The concentrations exhibit distinct daily courses which, among other things, can be related to atmospheric photooxidation. The hydroperoxides as secondary air pollutants exhibit an inverse course similar to that of ozone, with maximum values in the afternoon.     

Dynamisiertes Emissionskataster für den Freistaat Sachsen

A computer aided tool was created for the calculation of emission values in Saxony. It is based on the Geographic Information System ArcInfo and enables the emission values for past, present and future periods to be assessed. At present, the anthropogenic air pollutants SO₂, NO_x, CO, NH₃, NMVOC, TSP, CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O can be calculated by means of emission factors and statistical values. The tool is open to future expansions. The moduls represent the following emission groups: Power stations, large agricultural farms and large industrial plants as point sources, as well as transport, households, small consumer and the total emission of agriculture as area sources. The local resolution of emission values, the relationship of emission values to geographic or political territories, the inclusion of a high resolved digital street network, and the use of actual data concerning land use, density of population and density of build up areas are realized by GIS ArcInfo. The dynamic emission inventory can be used, alone or in conjunction with an atmospheric dispersion model, to assess trends in air quality.     

Schnelle vor-ort-analytik zur untersuchung von rüstungsaltlasten

Field screening methods for the analysis of explosives (for which commercial test kits are generally available) are reviewed. These techniques include immunoassays, photometric methods, bio and chemical sensors as well as thin layer chromatography. Basic aspects of these techniques are discussed, their validation is presented and their application to water and soil samples from hazardous ammunition waste is described. An evaluation of field studies with commercial test kits demonstrates that these techniques can be applied successfully for both the exploration of suspected contaminated sites and their sanitation. These methods are used on-site. In general, they allow short analysis times and a high sample throughput, thus leading to a significant reduction of the number of samples to be analysed in the laboratory and the costs.