The interpretation of planning appeals

The extent to which aggrieved applicants appeal against planning refusals varies between types of development, between regions and over time. So, too, though in lesser degree, does the extent to which appeals are successful. The paper seeks to explain these variations. It does so by arguing that the appeal rate varies with the support that central government ministers and their inspectors (the Central Planning Authority, CPA) give to the local planning authorities (LPAs), with appeal costs and with applicant and LPA willingness to renegotiate over refused applications. The appeal success rate is seen to be largely independent of the appeal rate and varies with potential appellants’ awareness of CPA policy and with their rationality.

It is concluded that appeal rate differences are best explained in terms of the CPA's support for the LPAs whether consideration is given to applications submitted nationally for different development types, to applications submitted in the eight English regions or to applications submitted in England and Wales over the period since 1974. Thus, CPA support for the LPAs is high in relation to change of use and householder developments but low in relation to development of the other major type; the CPA is less supportive of LPA policy in Yorkshire and Humberside and in East Anglia than in the other English regions, at least in the mid 1980s; and the CPA markedly reduced its support for the LPAs in England and Wales in the early 1980s.

It is also concluded that the low appeal success rate for minor residential development is the result of low appellant rationality, potential appellants being particularly determined to press their proposals against the odds. Appellant awareness of CPA policy and rationality may be comparable for the remaining development types since the appeal success rate shows little variation. Similarly, appellant awareness and rationality may be comparable in the eight English regions. In contrast, the appeal success rate in England and Wales as a whole has increased since 1974 perhaps because potential appellants are now more aware of CPA policy.     

欧美经验对我国“十三五”大气污染防治战略的启示

当前,我国大气污染形势严峻,复合型污染特征突出。新修订的《中华人民共和国环境保护法》、《中华人民共和国大气污染防治法》、《环境空气质量标准》以及《大气污染防治行动计划》的发布和实施,对我国大气污染防治工作提出了更高要求。"十三五"时期是我国环境保护负重前行困难期和大有作为关键期,也是我国改善大气环境质量的攻坚期,需要系统谋划大气污染防治战略。欧盟和美国在制定大气污染防治战略时,以改善空气质量为核心,构建了涵盖一次污染物和二次污染物的多污染物目标体系,规定了环境浓度、排放量、直观感受(能见度)、健康以及管理等约束性指标,并且针对大气污染防治政策分析实施的成本与收益,开发相应的模型工具,基于收益成本比进行科学决策。本文对欧美环境规划和战略中的多污染物协同控制目标体系以及大气污染防治政策成本效益评估经验进行梳理,分析我国大气污染防治战略的现状和问题,并提出相关政策建议,以期为解决"心肺之患"、实现环保"十三五"总体目标提供参考。     

The impact of environmental assessment on local planning authorities

Studies of two samples of 24 selected local planning authorities (LPAs) in the UK were undertaken to determine the effect of environmental assessment (EA) regulations on planning practice during their first 18 months of operation. EA has been integrated into the UK planning system without significant recourse to the courts and many LPAs regarded EA as a worthwhile and helpful procedure. However, several LPAs did not consider whether to request EA for projects that might be likely to have significant impacts and some LPAs did not follow statutory and recommended consultation procedures. LPAs did not evaluate environmental statements systematically and their quality was often unsatisfactory. However, mitigation of environmental impacts took place in many cases though two‐fifths of the 20 determined applications involving EA were refused. Half the decisions took longer than the 16‐week time limit. While practice is evolving as experience is gained, there is obvious scope for further improvement and suggestions are made to enhance the contribution of EA to the planning system.     

DBO模式在污水处理行业的应用研究

DBO模式是PPP模式之一,在国家大力推进PPP模式之际,尝试开展DBO模式在污水处理行业的应用研究,分析污水处理行业发展趋势与问题,DBO模式在污水处理行业应用的适用领域与适用条件、优点,提出DBO模式在污水处理行业的推行路径,希望通过DBO模式解决污水处理行业的问题,促进行业健康发展。本文认为,城镇、乡镇与村庄生活污水处理、工业企业废水治理等领域具有项目设计与建设非标准化、项目需求明确、责任边界清晰、项目运营服务质量和成本容易监测等特点,应用DBO模式具有可行性。这些领域内的项目若有可靠的建设资金来源、稳定的运行费用保障机制、急于改善的区域水环境质量及严格的环保设施运行需求,适合采用DBO模式。DBO模式可以提高这些项目的建设质量和运营质量,节约成本,缩短建设周期,提高抗风险能力。同时,在行业层面,能够解决这些领域面临的项目设计不合理、建设质量不高、运行费用高、运行管理不善、闲置等诸多问题,可以促进先进实用技术和管理经验的应用,提高行业技术和运营管理水平的整体进步。因此,建议政府从开展实施试点、制定行业规范、加大宣传和推广、颁布政策文件等方面大力推进DBO模式在污水处理行业的应用。     

Sustainability versus liveability: an investigation of neighbourhood satisfaction

Recent years have witnessed an increasing emphasis placed on planning systems in most advanced capitalist societies to develop a more sustainable urban development pattern, resulting in policies to increase residential densities. Although belief in the virtues of the compact city approach is now widespread among the policy community, questions remain relating to the ‘sustainability versus liveability’ implications of compact city environments. In this regard, while the public may support sustainability principles, there is a perception that high-density development poses too great a cost on individuals' quality of life. Combining both quantitative and qualitative research data, this paper evaluates the relationship between high-density living and neighbourhood satisfaction within the central city. Findings suggest that, in many instances, it is not high density per se that is the source of dissatisfaction for respondents, but rather other related factors such as environmental quality, noise, lack of community involvement, traffic and lack of services and facilities.     

Development control standards and industrial applications

Recent Central Government advice to local authorities on the matter of business and industry applications Has been towards a relaxation of controls and a facilitating of development. Also the general worsening of the economy in the last few years has probably increased the interest with which local councillors regard industrial applications for planning permission. A study of refusal rates for industrial applications for 317 Districts taken from the DOE Development Control Returns and a case study in Coventry District of all industrial applications in 1970 and 1980 suggest that despite these pressures planning authorities are not lowering standards.     

Discretionary Judgement in Local Planning Authority Decision Making: Screening Development Proposals for Environmental Impact Assessment

Screening is a critical decision-stage in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process and involves the determination of whether or not a development proposal will require EIA. This decision requires a discretionary judgement on whether the development has the potential to cause ‘significant environmental effects’, and consequently there is potential for diversity to exist in formal requests for EIA. Drawing upon a comprehensive survey of Local Planning Authorities (LPAs) in England and Wales, this paper explores the characteristics of LPA screening decision making since the introduction of revised EIA regulations in March 1999. The paper starts with a theoretical overview of rationality, decision making and planning theory, followed by a brief review of the regulatory context of EIA screening. The research approach is then outlined and the survey findings are presented, including a detailed consideration of organizational and individual level analyses set within the context of planning theory judgement debates. Comparisons with other European countries are briefly made, before drawing conclusions and recommendations.     

“双碳”背景下碳排放的边际外部性成本及最佳碳税的思考

气候变暖与环境恶化已成为人类生存和发展的重大威胁。鉴于碳排放具有负外部性,研究碳排放的边际外部性成本并探究最佳碳税,对于推进实现“双碳”目标具有重要意义。本文通过构建一个无限期的多部门新古典增长模型,探究碳排放的边际外部性成本及其影响因素,并对最优的碳税政策进行思考。研究结果表明：当居民消费效用函数呈对数形式、大气损害与产量成正比、大气中的碳含量存在线性关系和储蓄率不变等假设条件成立时,碳排放的边际外部性成本与产出成正比,且比例只与贴现率、大气损害函数和大气中的碳消散结构有关。因此,在碳税政策的制定上,要坚持经济发展与生态环境保护并重,分阶段动态优化调整碳税税率：在高贴现率时期提高碳税税率,分行业施行碳税政策和补贴政策,同时为了避免经济社会遭受到较大的冲击,起初征收碳税时税率不宜过高;考虑不同体量企业收入差距和负担能力,采用累进碳税征收机制;分地区实施差别税率,统筹区域协调发展。     

Rhetoric and Reality of Water Quality Trading and the Potential for Market‐like Reform1

Stephenson, Kurt and Leonard Shabman, 2011. Rhetoric and Reality of Water Quality Trading and the Potential for Market‐Like Reform. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(1):15‐28. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2010.00492.x Abstract: Many public interest groups, government agencies, and professional economists argue that current approaches to water quality trading are a cost‐effective, politically practical innovation for achieving water quality standards, in part by addressing one of the most difficult water quality improvement challenges – limiting the discharge from nonpoint sources. A critical analysis shows that these claims for current water quality trading programs are often unrealized. This rhetoric, without adherence to principles of market‐like reform, can undermine the support of regulated parties for meaningful water quality policy reform, contribute to missed opportunities to implement cost‐effective programs, and postpone successfully meeting the challenge of limiting nonpoint source discharges. A better understanding and application of market‐like principles can result in an improved design of trading as well as general water quality management programs.     

THEORY AND REALITY IN ALLOCATING FEDERAL RESOURCES TO WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT1

ABSTRACT: Federal spending on water resource development projects exceeds $10 billion annually. This paper examines the economic theory and practice on which the Federal water resource development plans are based. Existing theoretical and applied problems result in overinvestment. These include 1) no standard of value for the tradeoff of environmental objectives with economic objectives; 2) benefits based on “willingness to pay,” but beneficiaries pay only a fraction of a project's costs; 3) beneficiaries “shop around” among program purposes in order to reduce their commitments; and 4) benefit/cost (B/C) analyses are based on a discount rate, which is consistently below the Federal borrowing rate. Furthermore, the Government Accounting Office (GAO) frequently finds that the agency regulations are inadequate and result in inconsistent and questionable benefit computations. The President has proposed a series of water policy reforms, to reduce some of the apparent overinvestment in water resource development, but fundmental corrective action rests with the members of Congress.     

Ranking without valuing in the face of major uncertainty--the case of the promotion of biodegradable lubricants

Major benefit uncertainties prevent monetary quantification of some environmental amenities. Replacing mineral lubricants with biodegradable substitutes is shown to be a case in point. However, it is possible to rank the social benefits of substituting mineral lubricants with regard to different applications and environments. As the private costs and benefits of substitution are mainly constant, only a policy that prioritizes full substitution in the applications with the greatest benefits can be efficient. It is shown that regulations requiring substitution in certain fields are likely to fulfil this criterion, while subsidies for production, processing, market introduction and research usually fail to meet the efficiency criterion.     

瑞典畜禽养殖许可制度研究及其启示

我国畜禽养殖行业中的规模化养殖单位,养殖畜禽品类繁多且污染产生量巨大,而现行的排污许可证申请制度却无法起到畜禽养殖污染防治的效果。为制定更加具体的最佳可行技术标准,完善畜禽养殖行业排污许可证的申请与核发程序,故而通过域外比较瑞典相关立法规定提供参考。瑞典自其环境保护事业开展半个世纪以来,已经形成了由畜禽养殖许可证申请人提交环境影响报告,郡行政议事会同时参考畜禽养殖业最佳可行技术标准,审核资质并发放许可证的畜禽养殖许可制度体系。借鉴瑞典的立法经验,我国畜禽养殖业污染防治应以预防为主,并快相关专项立法的制定进程,以建立畜禽养殖行业排污许可综合管理制度。     

Indicators for sustainable energy development in Lithuania

This article summarizes some of the results from the application of the indicators for sustainable energy development (ISED) tool for analyzing Lithuania's energy sector, in terms of trends, setting energy policy goals and monitoring progress towards these goals. This experience illustrates the potential applicability of the ISED methodology for energy policy development in economies in transition, using Lithuania as an example. The article presents a summary of the results achieved and conclusions arrived at from the analysis of six priority areas in the context of the research project coordinated by the International Atomic Energy Agency, and provides recommendations for the development of sustainable energy policy using the ISED approach.     

WATER QUALITY SAMPLING SCHEMES FOR VARIABLE FLOW CANALS AT REMOTE SITES1

ABSTRACT: Growing interest in water quality has resulted in the development of monitoring networks and intensive sampling for various constituents. Common purposes are regulatory, source and sink understanding, and trend observations. Water quality monitoring involves monitoring system design; sampling site instrumentation; and sampling, analysis, quality control, and assurance. Sampling is a process to gather information with the least cost and least error. Various water quality sampling schemes have been applied for different sampling objectives and time frames. In this study, a flow proportional composite sampling scheme is applied to variable flow remote canals where the flow rate is not known a priori. In this scheme, historical weekly flow data are analyzed to develop high flow and low flow sampling trigger volumes for auto‐samplers. The median flow is used to estimate low flow sampling trigger volume and the five percent exceedence probability flow is used for high flow sampling trigger volume. A computer simulation of high resolution sampling is used to demonstrate the comparative bias in load estimation and operational cost among four sampling schemes. Weekly flow proportional composite auto‐sampling resulted in the least bias in load estimation with competitive operational cost compared to daily grab, weekly grab sampling and time proportional auto‐sampling.     

Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for Ecosystem Services with Dual Goals of Environment and Poverty Alleviation

The goal of this article is to understand strategies by which both the environmental and poverty alleviation objectives of PES programs can be achieved cost effectively. To meet this goal, we first create a conceptual framework to understand the implications of alternative targeting when policy makers have both environmental and poverty alleviation goals. We then use the Grain for Green program in China, the largest PES program in the developing world, as a case study. We also use a data set from a survey that we designed and implemented to evaluate the program. Using the data set we first evaluate what factors determined selection of program areas for the Grain for Green program. We then demonstrate the heterogeneity of parcels and households and examine the correlations across households and their parcels in terms of their potential environmental benefits, opportunity costs of participating, and the asset levels of households as an indicator of poverty. Finally, we compare five alternative targeting criteria and simulate their performance in terms of cost effectiveness in meeting both the environmental and poverty alleviation goals when given a fixed budget. Based on our simulations, we find that there is a substantial gain in the cost effectiveness of the program by targeting parcels based on the “gold standard,” i.e., targeting parcels with low opportunity cost and high environmental benefit managed by poorer households.     

Integrating Environmental and Socio-Economic Indicators of a Linked Catchment–Coastal System Using Variable Environmental Intensity

Can we develop land use policy that balances the conflicting views of stakeholders in a catchment while moving toward long term sustainability? Adaptive management provides a strategy for this whereby measures of catchment performance are compared against performance goals in order to progressively improve policy. However, the feedback loop of adaptive management is often slow and irreversible impacts may result before policy has been adapted. In contrast, integrated modelling of future land use policy provides rapid feedback and potentially improves the chance of avoiding unwanted collapse events. Replacing measures of catchment performance with modelled catchment performance has usually required the dynamic linking of many models, both biophysical and socio-economic—and this requires much effort in software development. As an alternative, we propose the use of variable environmental intensity (defined as the ratio of environmental impact over economic output) in a loose coupling of models to provide a sufficient level of integration while avoiding significant effort required for software development. This model construct was applied to the Motueka Catchment of New Zealand where several biophysical (riverine water quantity, sediment, E. coli faecal bacteria, trout numbers, nitrogen transport, marine productivity) models, a socio-economic (gross output, gross margin, job numbers) model, and an agent-based model were linked. An extreme set of land use scenarios (historic, present, and intensive) were applied to this modelling framework. Results suggest that the catchment is presently in a near optimal land use configuration that is unlikely to benefit from further intensification. This would quickly put stress on water quantity (at low flow) and water quality (E. coli). To date, this model evaluation is based on a theoretical test that explores the logical implications of intensification at an unlikely extreme in order to assess the implications of likely growth trajectories from present use. While this has largely been a desktop exercise, it would also be possible to use this framework to model and explore the biophysical and economic impacts of individual or collective catchment visions. We are currently investigating the use of the model in this type of application.     

国家环境经济政策进展评估报告2018

2018年是环境经济政策建设取得重要进展的一年,《关于全面加强生态环境保护 坚决打好污染防治攻坚战的意见》等中央文件对环境经济政策建设提出了新形势需求,环境财政、环境价格、生态补偿、绿色金融等政策取得了阶段性突破,但是我国的环境经济政策体系仍不够完善,服务于生态文明建设以及环境质量改善的环境经济政策仍然存在结构性短缺,需要积极推进环保投融资、生态补偿等环境经济政策的创新运用,为环境质量改善、生态文明建设提供长效政策机制。     

全球气候治理主体共同体化现状、问题与深化路径

在全球治理和国际秩序加速变革等大变局背景下,全球气候治理体系和秩序正在经历深刻变化。全球气候问题需要全球气候治理的主体去认知与改造,主体在全球气候治理进程中有着关键性影响。当前全球气候治理主体的内涵和外延在持续变化,最值得关注的变化就是全球气候治理主体走向共同体化,并且正在形成一种规范。全球气候治理主体间在利益、责任与命运关系的演化,对更大范围的、更深程度的主体关系提出了新要求。本文基于近年来全球气候治理实践,分析了全球气候治理主体共同体及其关系的发展情况与趋势,同时分析人类命运共同体如何引导全球气候治理主体共同体及其关系,以更好聚焦国际社会应对气候变化的首要因素,开启全球应对气候变化新征程。     

Applying value of information methods to prioritize elements for water quality management with an example of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate in the Yodo River,Japan

Narrowing the decision space is crucial in water quality management at the meso-scale for developing countries, where a lack of data and financial budgets prevent the development of appropriate management plans and result in serious water quality degradation in many rivers. In this study, a framework for handling this task is proposed, comprising a lumped water quality model, with sensitivity and uncertainty analyses, and a management domain, including loss estimation and value of information analysis. Through a case study with linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) in the Yodo River, it is found that non-point sources and flow rate are factors that influence LAS concentration at the hot spot location. By considering the entire process of water quality management planning, we identify that the definition of the cost function of LAS treatment determines the appropriate estimation for the expected loss in reducing LAS under uncertain water quality conditions. The value of information analysis with “expected value of including uncertainty” and “expected value of perfect information” further helps estimate the benefit of including uncertainty in decision-making and the financial cost for obtaining more information regarding inputs that have been previously prioritized.