Antibiotika (Ivermectin, Monensin) und endokrine Umweltchemikalien (nonylphenol, Ethinylöstradiol) im Boden

The influence of four synthetic chemicals (nonylphenol, ethynyl-estradiol, ivermectin, monesin) on the biomass and on the microbial activity was studied in a laboratory experiment using a typical luvisol derived from loess. The polyether antibiotic monensin, the antiparasitic agent ivermectin and the two environmental chemicals with endocrine effects nonylphenol and ethynylestradiol were chosen because of their toxicity to different organisms and known biological activity. These agents may enter the soil together with sewage sludge or manure. To date, however, the effects on soil have hardly been studied. Selected microbial methods revealed in part very significant effects on the microbial biomass and microbial activity during constant physical (15°C, 50% water holding capicity) and chemical conditions (pH, C_org) 1, 14 and 42 days after contamination.     

复方阿苯达唑/伊维菌素及其单药的体内外致突变性研究

农业生产上常用的阿苯达唑和伊维菌素均有一定的致突变性。为了解伊维菌素和阿苯达唑按1:24形成固定剂量复方的致突变性,以及复方和单药致突变性的差异,采用Ames试验、小鼠骨髓微核试验和小鼠精子畸变试验进行复方阿苯达唑/伊维菌素及其单药的致突变性研究。结果表明,复方阿苯达唑/伊维菌素能提高小鼠骨髓嗜多染红细胞的微核率和精子畸形率,但在单复方的比较中发现,单药的微核率和精子畸形率均高于复方,表明复方毒性有所降低。同时,无论是复方还是单药均不能提高组氨酸缺陷型沙门氏菌的突变率。以上表明,虽然复方阿苯达唑/伊维菌素致突变毒性低于单药,但仍然是一种能引起小鼠骨髓微核率和精子畸形率升高的致突变阳性药物,因此需警惕该药物的食品残留问题及对生态环境的危害。     

Population growth rate and carrying capacity for springtails Folsomia candida exposed to ivermectin.

Forecasting the effects of stressors on the dynamics of natural populations requires assessment of the joint effects of a stressor and population density on the population response. The effects can be depicted as a contour map in which the population response, here assessed by population growth rate, varies with stress and density in the same way that the height of land above sea level varies with latitude and longitude. We present the first complete map of this type using as our model Folsomia candida exposed to five different concentrations of the widespread anthelmintic veterinary medicine ivermectin in replicated microcosm experiments lasting 49 days. The concentrations of ivermectin in yeast were 0.0, 6.8, 28.8, 66.4, and 210.0 mg/L wet weight. Increasing density and chemical concentration both significantly reduced the population growth rate of Folsomia candida, in part through effects on food consumption and fecundity. The interaction between density and ivermectin concentration was "less-than-additive," implying that at high density populations were able to compensate for the effects of the chemical. This result demonstrates that regulatory protocols carried out at low density (as in most past experiments) may seriously overestimate effects in the field, where densities are locally high and populations are resource limited (e.g., in feces of livestock treated with ivermectin).     

Effect of the endectocide ivermectin on filamentous fungi

We investigated the effect of ivermectin, at environmental concentrations and above, on several strains of filamentous fungi. Ivermectin did not show significant short-term effect on biomass production and germination rate of the spores. By contrast, the spore production was stimulated twofold in Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Mucor racemosus cultures, whereas that endpoint was reduced in Fusarium cultures. A long-term exposure of F. oxysporum to ivermectin reduced both production and germination of fungal spores. Ivermectin was not an inducer of exocellular oxidases.     

Acute hematological toxicity of ivermectin to juvenile Clarias gariepinus

Abstract

Acute behavioral and hematological toxicity of ivermectin to C. gariepinus juveniles were assessed under static conditions at concentrations of 9 to 25?µg L^?1 for up to 4?days. Juveniles were highly sensitive to ivermectin, with an LC50 of 15?µg L^?1, culminating in spasms and paralysis. The hematological responses of packed cell volume, hemoglobin and red blood cell count decreased when compared to the control while the white blood cell count showed a biphasic trend. The mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin showed a mixed trend, while mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration increased with increase in the concentration of the drug. Lymphocytes and neutrophils were also significantly (p?<?.05) increased. Ivermectin did not elicit any significant changes in monocytes, basophils and eosinophils. The observed changes confirm that ivermectin negatively affected the health of the fish. Therefore, real-time monitoring for early warning is recommended.     

Acute toxicity of three avermectins to anuran tadpoles北大核心CSCD

Avermectins are a new class of macrocyclic lactones derived from mycelia of the soil actinomycete, and are among the most effective agricultural pesticides and antiparasitic agents. In this report, three avermectins (abamectin, ABM; ivermectin, IVM; and emamectin benzoate, EMB) were used to assess their toxic effects on tadpoles of four anuran species (Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Hylarana guentheri, Polypedates megacephalus and Microhyla heymonsi) using a static-renewal acute toxicity test. The results showed that there were significant dose-responsive correlations between the accumulated dead probit of tadpoles and the concentrations of the three avermectins. The 96-h half lethal concentrations (LC50) of ABM to the tadpoles of the four species were 0.042, 0.034, 0.020, and 0.014 mg/L; the 96-h LC50 values of IVM were 0.029, 0.012, 0.012, and 0.006 mg/L, and the values of EMB were 0.118, 0.111, 0.122, and 0.089 mg/L, respectively. Our study reveals that these agrochemicals probably make a significant contribution to the decline of amphibian populations, and provides valuable information about the toxic effects of avermectins on amphibians. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

伊维菌素对雄性吉富罗非鱼生理生化指标的影响

为探讨抗寄生虫药物伊维菌素(IVM)对鱼类的毒性效应,以雄性吉富罗非鱼(Oreochromis niloticus)为实验对象,设定了A(空白对照)、B(乙醇对照)、C(0.1 mg·kg~(-1))、D(0.5 mg·kg~(-1))、E(1 mg·kg~(-1))5个实验组,研究IVM对吉富罗非鱼肝脏和血液生理生化的影响。研究发现:正常生理状态下吉富罗非鱼肝脏中的丙二醛(MDA)含量较低,IVM作用后除最高剂量E组中MDA含量在4 h、16 h和24 h时极显著高于对照组外,其余各组均未受到显著影响。较低注射剂量C组中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性均得到了诱导,且均显著高于对照组,较高注射剂量组中除E组在第4 h、16 h和24 h SOD活性显著高于对照组外,其余均未发现有显著变化。肝脏中谷草转氨酶(AST)和谷丙转氨酶(ALT)在IVM作用下均发生了一定的变化,尤其是E组均显著低于对照组。与肝脏中的相反,血液中的AST则随剂量的升高而呈现增加的趋势,在某些时间点与对照组相比显著升高,而血液中ALT除C、D组个别时间点外其余的均未有显著变化。B、C、D、E 4组肝脏中的碱性磷酸酶(ALP)相对A组均发生了显著下降,但C、D、E组与B组除个别时间点外均未有显著差异,因此肝脏中的ALP变化可能是无水乙醇作用的结果,而非IVM。血液中ALP则均未有显著变化。研究表明高剂量的IVM对吉富罗非鱼的肝脏造成了一定影响,因此在实际使用过程中应选择合适的给药方式以及合理的给药剂量。     

Experimental warming shows that decomposition temperature sensitivity increases with soil organic matter recalcitrance

Soil C decomposition is sensitive to changes in temperature, and even small increases in temperature may prompt large releases of C from soils. But much of what we know about soil C responses to global change is based on short-term incubation data and model output that implicitly assumes soil C pools are composed of organic matter fractions with uniform temperature sensitivities. In contrast, kinetic theory based on chemical reactions suggests that older, more-resistant C fractions may be more temperature sensitive. Recent research on the subject is inconclusive, indicating that the temperature sensitivity of labile soil organic matter (OM) decomposition could either be greater than, less than, or equivalent to that of resistant soil OM. We incubated soils at constant temperature to deplete them of labile soil OM and then successively assessed the CO2-C efflux in response to warming. We found that the decomposition response to experimental warming early during soil incubation (when more labile C remained) was less than that later when labile C was depleted. These results suggest that the temperature sensitivity of resistant soil OM pools is greater than that for labile soil OM and that global change-driven soil C losses may be greater than previously estimated.     

不同载畜率对短花针茅荒漠草原土壤呼吸的影响

草地是我国最大的陆地生态系统,土壤呼吸是草地碳循环研究的重要内容,是土壤碳库输出的主要方式,影响大气中CO2浓度变化。放牧是草地主要利用方式之一,通过动物采食和践踏,改变植被冠层结构,对土壤理化性质、土壤有机质和土壤微生物产生影响,进而改变土壤呼吸速率。为探究不同载畜率对短花针茅（Stipa breviflora）荒漠草原土壤呼吸速率的影响,2011—2012年用Li-8100开路式碳通量测定系统,对生长季内（6—10月）4个不同载畜率处理下的土壤呼吸进行测定,测定周期为2周1次。辅助测定地下10 cm的土壤温度及土壤湿度,并分析土壤呼吸与土壤温、湿度的关系。结果表明：1）2011年不同载畜率对土壤呼吸速率无显著影响,表现为对照〉中度放牧〉轻度放牧〉重度放牧的变化趋势。2012年与对照（1.6μmol·m-2·s-1）相比,重度放牧（1.07μmol·m-2·s-1）显著降低土壤呼吸速率。总体而言,2011年土壤呼吸速率低于2012年,但差异不显著。2011年土壤温度（20.73℃）显著高于2012年（14.38℃）,不同处理间无显著差异,重度放牧区偏高。2012年土壤湿度（7.24%）显著高于2011年（4.11%）,对2年数据整体分析发现,轻度放牧区土壤湿度显著低于对照和中度放牧。2011年土壤湿度变化趋势为中度放牧〉对照〉重度放牧〉轻度放牧。2012年,轻度放牧土壤湿度最小,各处理间差异不显著。2）2011年,土壤呼吸与土壤温度月动态无明显规律,与土壤湿度呈现相反的变化趋势。2012年土壤呼吸的月动态与土壤温、湿度变化趋势相似。3）2011年,土壤呼吸速率随温度升高出现波动,与土壤湿度呈负相关。2012年,土壤呼吸速率随土壤温、湿度升高而增大。在干旱年份,降水减少会掩盖放牧对土壤呼吸的影响;在降雨较多的年份,重度放牧显著降低土壤呼吸速率。     

Nitrogen dynamics in an Australian semiarid grassland soil

We conducted a four-week laboratory incubation of soil from a Themeda triandra Forsskal grassland to clarify mechanisms of nitrogen (N) cycling processes in relation to carbon (C) and N availability in a hot, semiarid environment. Variation in soil C and N availability was achieved by collecting soil from either under tussocks or the bare soil between tussocks, and by amending soil with Themeda litter. We measured N cycling by monitoring: dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), ammonium (NH4+), and nitrate (NO3-) contents, gross rates of N mineralization and microbial re-mineralization, NH4+ and NO3- immobilization, and autotrophic and heterotrophic nitrification. We monitored C availability by measuring cumulative soil respiration and dissolved organic C (DOC). Litter-amended soil had cumulative respiration that was eightfold greater than non-amended soil (2000 compared with 250 microg C/g soil) and almost twice the DOC content (54 compared with 28 microg C/g soil). However, litter-amended soils had only half as much DON accumulation as non-amended soils (9 compared with 17 microg N/g soil) and lower gross N rates (1-4 compared with 13-26 microg N x [g soil](-1) x d(-1)) and NO3- accumulation (0.5 compared with 22 microg N/g soil). Unamended soil from under tussocks had almost twice the soil respiration as soil from between tussocks (300 compared with 175 microg C/g soil), and greater DOC content (33 compared with 24 microg C/g soil). However, unamended soil from under tussocks had lower gross N rates (3-20 compared with 17-31 microg N x [g soil](-1) d(-1)) and NO3- accumulation (18 compared with 25 microg N/g soil) relative to soil from between tussocks. We conclude that N cycling in this grassland is mediated by both C and N limitations that arise from the patchiness of tussocks and seasonal variability in Themeda litterfall. Heterotrophic nitrification rate explained >50% of total nitrification, but this percentage was not affected by proximity to tussocks or litter amendment. A conceptual model that considers DON as central to N cycling processes provided a useful initial framework to explain results of our study. However, to fully explain N cycling in this semiarid grassland soil, the production of NO3- from organic N sources must be included in this model.     

Soil-geomorphic heterogeneity governs patchy vegetation dynamics at an arid ecotone

Soil properties are well known to affect vegetation, but the role of soil heterogeneity in the patterning of vegetation dynamics is poorly documented. We asked whether the location of an ecotone separating grass-dominated and sparsely vegetated areas reflected only historical variation in degradation or was related to variation in inherent soil properties. We then asked whether changes in the cover and spatial organization of vegetated and bare patches assessed using repeat aerial photography reflected self-organizing dynamics unrelated to soil variation or the stable patterning of soil variation. We found that the present-day ecotone was related to a shift from more weakly to more strongly developed soils. Parts of the ecotone were stable over a 60-year period, but shifts between bare and vegetated states, as well as persistently vegetated and bare states, occurred largely in small (<40 m2) patches throughout the study area. The probability that patches were presently vegetated or bare, as well as the probability that vegetation persisted and/or established over the 60-year period, was negatively related to surface calcium carbonate and positively related to subsurface clay content. Thus, only a fraction of the landscape was susceptible to vegetation change, and the sparsely vegetated area probably featured a higher frequency of susceptible soil patches. Patch dynamics and self-organizing processes can be constrained by subtle (and often unrecognized) soil heterogeneity.     

Does plant species co-occurrence influence soil mite diversity?

Few studies have considered whether plant taxa can be used as predictors of belowground faunal diversity in natural ecosystems. We examined soil mite (Acari) diversity beneath six grass species at the Konza Prairie Biological Station, Kansas, USA. We tested the hypotheses that soil mite species richness, abundance, and taxonomic diversity are greater (1) beneath grasses in dicultures (different species) compared to monocultures (same species), (2) beneath grasses of higher resource quality (lower C:N) compared to lower resource quality, and (3) beneath heterogeneous mixes of grasses (C3 and C4 grasses growing together) compared to homogeneous mixes (C3 or C4 grasses) using natural occurrences of plant species as treatments. This study is the first to examine the interaction between above- and belowground diversity in a natural setting with species-level resolution of a hyper-diverse taxon. Our results indicate that grasses in diculture supported a more species and phylogenetically rich soil mite fauna than was observed for monocultures and that this relationship was significant at depth but not in the upper soil horizon. We noted that mite species richness was not linearly related to grass species richness, which suggests that simple extrapolations of soil faunal diversity based on plant species inventories may underestimate the richness of associated soil mite communities. The distribution of mite size classes in dicultures was considerably different than those for monocultures. There was no difference in soil mite richness between grass combinations of differing resource quality, or resource heterogeneity.     

农牧交错带开垦年限对土壤理化特性的影响

为研究农牧交错带天然草地转变为农田后,开垦年限对土壤理化特性的影响,按照邻近样地的取样原则,于2007年10月选择位于内蒙古东部农牧交错带太仆寺旗的天然草地和邻近的6个不同开垦年限的农田样地(垦殖年限为5、10、15、20、35、50 a)作为研究对象分析其土壤理化性状.结果表明:在0～30 cm土层中,天然草地转变为农田后,开垦年限对土壤养分含量和物理性状均有显著影响.土壤的有机碳含量、全氮含量、速效钾含量均随农田开垦年限的延长而降低.草地土壤的养分含量最高.与天然草地相比,0～10 cm土层,有机碳含量分别下降36%、47%、43%、57%、68%、68%;速效钾含量分别下降33%、55%、39%、65%、60%、40%.开垦年限对土壤物理性状也有明显影响,草地土壤的粘粒含量最高,砂粒含量最低;开垦年限越长的农田,土壤砂粒含量越高,粘粒含量越低;农田土壤的容重显著高于草地,随农田开垦年限的延长,土壤容重增加;而土壤pH值显示降低趋势.研究表明在研究区域天然草地具有较好的土壤养分保持能力,开垦年限越长越易导致土壤养分的缺乏和土壤的酸化和沙化,影响整个农牧交错带生态系统的稳定性和持续性.     

庆阳市庆城县退耕还林区土壤纤毛虫群落特征

为研究土壤纤毛虫群落对不同退耕模式生态恢复的响应及利用其群落特征来评价退还效果,采用“非淹没培养皿法”、活体观察法和培养直接计数法对甘肃省庆阳市庆城县退耕10年后的多树种混交林(APR)和单一树种经济林(A)以及两个农田对照样地(CK1和CK2)的土壤纤毛虫群落特征进行定性定量研究,同时测定各样地土壤温度、含水量、pH值、电导率、土壤孔隙度、有机质、总氮、总磷、总钾、速效氮、速效磷和速效钾含量,并分析不同退耕还模式下土壤纤毛虫群落特征参数与土壤理化因子间的相关关系。结果为:共鉴定到土壤纤毛虫127种,隶属10纲21目34科52属;退耕样地与农田对照样地土壤纤毛虫物种分布存在明显差异,退耕样地间的物种相似性减小,群落组成复杂化,纤毛虫密度、多样性指数和丰富度指数均显著高于对照(P<0.05),其中混交林物种多样性最高;土壤纤毛虫优势类群由农田样地的肾形目(Colpodida)逐渐过渡为退耕样地的散毛目(Sporadotrichida);相关性分析可知,有机质、总氮、孔隙度和pH是影响土壤纤毛虫群落组成的关键因子,不同退耕模式下土壤纤毛虫群落组成差异较大,表明土壤纤毛虫群落对该地区退耕还林生态恢复工程发生了积极的响应,因此土壤纤毛虫群落特征参数可以作为评价退还效果的重要指标。     

Additive effects of aboveground polyphagous herbivores and soil feedback in native and range-expanding exotic plants

Plant biomass and plant abundance can be controlled by aboveground and belowground natural enemies. However, little is known about how the aboveground and belowground enemy effects may add up. We exposed 15 plant species to aboveground polyphagous insect herbivores and feedback effects from the soil community alone, as well as in combination. We envisaged three possibilities: additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effects of the aboveground and belowground enemies on plant biomass. In our analysis, we included native and phylogenetically related range-expanding exotic plant species, because exotic plants on average are less sensitive to aboveground herbivores and soil feedback than related natives. Thus, we examined if lower sensitivity of exotic plant species to enemies also alters aboveground-belowground interactions. In a greenhouse experiment, we exposed six exotic and nine native plant species to feedback from their own soil communities, aboveground herbivory by polyphagous insects, or a combination of soil feedback and aboveground insects and compared shoot and root biomass to control plants without aboveground and belowground enemies. We observed that for both native and range-expanding exotic plant species effects of insect herbivory aboveground and soil feedback added up linearly, instead of enforcing or counteracting each other. However, there was no correlation between the strength of aboveground herbivory and soil feedback. We conclude that effects of polyphagous aboveground herbivorous insects and soil feedback add up both in the case of native and related range-expanding exotic plant species, but that aboveground herbivory effects may not necessarily predict the strengths of soil feedback effects.     

The environmental fate of thymol,a novel botanical pesticide,in tropical agricultural soil and water

In this study, the environmental fate of thymol, including hydrolysis, aqueous photolysis, soil sorption and soil degradation, was studied under conditions that simulated the tropical agricultural environment. This study was undertaken to supply basic information for evaluating the environmental risks of applying this new botanical pesticide to tropical crop production. The results showed that the hydrolysis of thymol was pH-dependent and accelerated by acidic conditions and high temperatures. However, the hydrolysis rate was far lower than the aqueous photolysis rate, indicating that direct photolysis is an important dissipation pathway for thymol in water. The sorption of thymol by three tropical soils was consistently well described by the Freundlich model, and the sorption coefficients increased in the order sandy soil < loamy soil < clay soil, a characterization that depended on the organic carbon contents of the soil. The soil degradation rate of thymol decreased in the order sandy soil > loamy soil > clay soil, which has a negative correlation with the sorption of thymol in soils. We concluded that the degradation rates of thymol in tropical soil and water are fast: thymol in water is photodegraded (50%) by sunlight within 28 h, and the thymol in soils is degraded (50%) within 8.4 d. Therefore, the environmental risk to the surrounding soils and water of thymol application for tropical crop production is low.     

澳门植被恢复过程土坑法的效应机制探讨

在澳门凼仔岛和路环岛两个离岛的植被成功恢复过程中,土坑法这一技术的应用起到了很好的作用。对土坑法在澳门植被恢复过程中的作用机制及其应用价值进行了初步的研究。对土坑区和无坑区的土壤理化性质测定的结果显示,土坑区土壤容重小于无坑区土壤容重,土坑区土壤含水量、土壤pH、有机质、全N等指标均比无坑区要高;对群落优势种台湾相思(Acacia confusa)生物特征的测量也发现,土坑区的植物生长优于无坑区。这表明土坑区的土壤物理结构和土壤肥力都有所改善,也有助于植被的生长。以上研究结果表明,土坑法是一项行之有效的植被恢复技术,对植被的恢复起到促进作用,可以在澳门进一步的生态恢复中继续应用并加以推广。     

Fate of 17β-estradiol in terrestrial model ecosystems amended with contaminated composted biosolids

Biosolids spread onto agricultural soils are potential sources of steroidal hormones that are able to adversely affect the soil ecosystem. Here we studied the fate of the [4-¹⁴C]-17-β-estradiol hormone in laboratory experiments. First, our results show that only 2.9% of the hormone was mineralized in the soil from a French vineyard. By contrast, the mineralization increased to 7.1% when the hormone was provided in composted biosolids. Second, we found that only a minor part of the estradiol-derived ¹⁴C was mobile and partly transferred to soil leachates. Indeed, the hormone was mainly stabilized in the soil as non-extractable residues. Overall, our findings show that estradiol undergoes two main processes, complete degradation and stabilisation. We therefore conclude that the environmental risk of hormones provided to the soil through composted biosolids is negligible under the conditions of our experiments.     

The influence of introducing soft-shelled turtle on soil nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in paddy field北大核心CSCD

Soil microorganisms are an important part of the soil ecosystem, but studies on the structure of the soil bacterial community, especially the related genes, is lacking. This study aimed to investigate the structure of soil microorganisms and the connection between the soil microorganisms and different farming systems. We used the Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx to compare root soil bacteria (nifH gene) diversity characteristics between the rice-turtle co-culture system (R-T) and rice monoculture system (R-M), aiming to reveal the structural characteristics of soil microorganisms, and the connection between the soil microorganisms and different farming systems. The results of High Throughput Sequencing of nitrogen-fixing bacteria showed that the main nitrogen-fixing bacteria were classified as Bradyrhizobium, Geobacter, Anaeromyxobacter, Desulfovibrio, Sideroxydans, Desulfuromonas, Halorhodospira, Azotobacter, Desulfobulbus, Methylomonas, Pseudacidovorax, and Azospirillum. The diversity index of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root soil of R-T was higher than that of R-M, which was 6.85-0.07. The difference of soil nitrogen-fixation bacteria in the root soil of rice paddy was 23.86% among the different farming systems, and the difference in the different rice growth period was 16.97%. In summary, the rice growth period and different farming systems both have an influence on the nitrogen-fixation bacteria in paddy soil; the influence of the growth period on the nitrogen-fixation bacteria in the paddy soil was greater. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

Recovery of Soil Macrofauna Communities after Forest Clearance in Eastern Amazonia, Brazil

Abstract:  As primary forest is cleared, pastures and secondary forest occupy an increasing space in the Amazonian landscape. We evaluated the effect of forest clearing on a soil macrofauna (invertebrate) community in a smallholder farming system of southeastern Amazonia. We sampled the soil macrofauna in 22 plots of forest, upland rice fields, pastures, and fallows of different ages. In total, we collected 10,728 invertebrates. In cleared plots the species richness per plot of the soil macrofauna fell from 76 to 30 species per plot immediately after forest clearance, and the composition of the new community was different. Ants, termites, and spiders were most affected by the disturbance. In plots deforested several years before, the effect of forest clearance was highly dependent on the type of land use (pasture or fallow). In fallows, the community was similar to the initial state. The species richness per plot in old fallows rose to 66, and the composition was closer to the primary forests than to the other types of land use. On the contrary, in the pastures the species richness per plot remained low at 47. In fallows, all the groups showed a richness close to that in primary forest, whereas in the forest only the richness of earthworms and Coleoptera recovered. Our results show that forest clearing constitutes a major disturbance for the soil macrofauna and that the recovery potential of the soil macrofauna after 6 or 7 years is much higher in fallows than in pastures. Thus, fallows may play a crucial role in the conservation of soil macrofauna.