Continuous improvement at EG&G: The waste reduction pays (WARP) initiative

EG&G is a Fortune 200 company with annual sales of $2.7 billion. It designs and manufactures laboratory and field-test instruments and electronic and mechanical components for commercial customers. EG&G provides systems engineering, precision component manufacturing, and test-site operating and management services to many government agencies and laboratories. It employs 34,000 people worldwide. Recognizing the need to improve its business practices as they related to environmental excellence, EG&G initiated policies, procedures, and programs to establish itself as an environmentally responsible company. Waste reduction was designated priority number one in EGG's environmental program. Our major customers are also making waste reduction a high visibility program. For example, on August 3, 1993, the president signed Executive Order 12856 making pollution prevention at federal facilities a goal of this administration. This article describes the EG&G Waste Reduction Pays (WARP) program, developed for use by all its operating entities, and why it is a model program to implement Executive Order 12856. It also depicts how the implementation of the program at federal facilities differs, in some respects, from that at other EG&G operating units.     

Introduction of a waste incineration tax: Effects on the Swedish waste flows

A tax on waste-to-energy incineration of fossil carbon in municipal solid waste from households was introduced in Sweden on July 1, 2006. The tax has led to higher incineration gate fees. One of the main purposes with the tax is to increase the incentive for recycling of materials, including biological treatment. We investigate whether and to what extent this effect can be expected. A spreadsheet model is developed in order to estimate the net marginal cost of alternative waste treatment methods, i.e., the marginal cost of alternative treatment minus avoided cost of incineration. The value of the households’ time needed for source separation is discussed and included. The model includes the nine largest fractions, totalling 85% (weight), of the household waste currently being sent to waste incineration: food waste, newsprint, paper packaging, soft and hard plastic packaging, diapers, yard waste, other paper waste, and non-combustible waste. Our results indicate that the incineration tax will have the largest effect on biological treatment of kitchen and garden waste, which may increase by 9%. The consequences of an incineration tax depend on: (a) the level of the tax, (b) whether the tax is based on an assumed average Swedish fossil carbon content or on the measured carbon content in each incineration plant, (c) institutional factors such as the cooperation between waste incinerators, and (d) technological factors such as the availability of central sorting of waste or techniques for measurement of fossil carbon in exhaust gases, etc. Information turns out to be a key factor in transferring the governing force of the tax to the households as well improving the households’ attitudes towards material recycling.     

Introduction of a waste incineration tax: Effects on the Swedish waste flows

A tax on waste-to-energy incineration of fossil carbon in municipal solid waste from households was introduced in Sweden on July 1, 2006. The tax has led to higher incineration gate fees. One of the main purposes with the tax is to increase the incentive for recycling of materials, including biological treatment. We investigate whether and to what extent this effect can be expected. A spreadsheet model is developed in order to estimate the net marginal cost of alternative waste treatment methods, i.e., the marginal cost of alternative treatment minus avoided cost of incineration. The value of the households’ time needed for source separation is discussed and included. The model includes the nine largest fractions, totalling 85% (weight), of the household waste currently being sent to waste incineration: food waste, newsprint, paper packaging, soft and hard plastic packaging, diapers, yard waste, other paper waste, and non-combustible waste. Our results indicate that the incineration tax will have the largest effect on biological treatment of kitchen and garden waste, which may increase by 9%. The consequences of an incineration tax depend on: (a) the level of the tax, (b) whether the tax is based on an assumed average Swedish fossil carbon content or on the measured carbon content in each incineration plant, (c) institutional factors such as the cooperation between waste incinerators, and (d) technological factors such as the availability of central sorting of waste or techniques for measurement of fossil carbon in exhaust gases, etc. Information turns out to be a key factor in transferring the governing force of the tax to the households as well improving the households’ attitudes towards material recycling.     

South African gold mining taxation : An example of a resource rent tax

Theoretically, a resource rent tax is neutral in that it does not influence the allocation of resources. However, the application of such fundamental principles in the tax formula of the South African gold mining industry negates the neutrality principle. A progressive element in the tax rate encourages mining of submarginal ores - leads to misallocation of resources. However, it substantially reduces the financial risks of a mining company engaged in the extraction of a commodity characterized by price volability, such as gold, and permits economies of scale in mining and encourages conservation of a non-renewable resource. As long as prices increase faster than costs, the advantages of this system probably exceed the disadvantages. The choice of the threshold rate in such a tax system is critical. If it is too high it will encourage mining of submarginal ores, and if too low it does not recognize the peculiar risks of gold mining investments.     

Removal of Pb(II) ions from aqueous solution using activated tea waste: Adsorption on a fixed-bed column

An inexpensive and effective adsorbent was developed from waste tea leaves for the dynamic uptake of Pb(II). Characterization of the adsorbents showed a clear change between physico-chemical properties of activated tea waste and simply tea waste. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the potential of activated tea waste in continuous flow removal of Pb(II) ions from synthetic aqueous effluents. The performance of the system was evaluated to assess the effect of various process variables, viz., of bed height, hydraulic loading rate and initial feed concentration on breakthrough time and adsorption capacity. The shape of the breakthrough curves was determined for the adsorption of Pb(II) by varying different operating parameters like hydraulic loading rate (2.3–9.17 m³/h m²), bed height (0.3–0.5 m) and feed concentration (2–10 mg/l). An attempt has also been made to model the data generated from column studies using the empirical relationship based on the Bohart–Adams model. There was an acceptable degree of agreement between the data for breakthrough time calculated from the Bohart–Adams model and the present experimental study with average absolute deviation of less than 5.0%. The activated tea waste in this study showed very good promise as compared with the other adsorbents available in the literature. The adsorbent could be suitable for repeated use (for more than four cycles) without noticeable loss of capacity.     

Does taxation alter exploration? : The effect of uncertainty and risk

The effect of resource rent taxation on mineral exploration is a controversial issue on which very little research has been carried out. Simple numerical examples are used in this paper to demonstrate that a ‘pure’ resource rent tax, or Brown Tax, can reduce the extent of exploration of a ‘promising’ deposit by a risk averse explorer, but encourage exploration of ‘unpromising’ deposits. This counter-intuitive result is explained in terms of the effect of the tax and of exploration on the costs of risk and uncertainty.     

An analysis of the relationship between uncertainty-reducing exploration and resource taxation

This paper analyses the role of exploration as an uncertainty-reducing activity for a company facing resource taxation. Such exploration is of benefit, even to a risk-neutral company, because it enables a better decision to be made regarding extraction investment (Kretzer, 1994). This paper extends previous contributions to the economics of exploration in several areas which are of practical significance. First, exploration is analysed both in the context of a log-normally distributed resource deposit and of an ad valorem royalty. Second, the role of exploration in an ad valorem royalty regime is contrasted with that of a Resource Rent Tax. Finally, the relationship between exploration and resource taxation in situations of very divergent pre-exploration levels of uncertainty is considered.     

Issues in extractive resource taxation: A review of research methods and models

This paper provides a conceptual overview of economists′ attempts to learn about the effects of taxes on extractive resources. The emphasis is on research methods and techniques, with no attempt to provide a comprehensive tabulation of previous empirical results or policy conclusions regarding preferred tax instruments or systems. We argue, in fact, that the nature of such conclusions largely depends on, and is limited by, the researcher′s choice of modeling framework. Many alternative frameworks and approaches have been developed in the literature. Our goal is to describe the differences among them and to note their strengths and limitations.     

Exploitation of Trichoderma harzianum mycelial waste for the removal of rhodamine 6G from aqueous solution

The harvested mycelial waste of Trichoderma harzianum was used as an adsorbent for the removal of rhodamine 6G and was studied in batch mode. The effects of agitation time and initial dye concentration, adsorbent dosage and pH were examined. The study revealed that the amount of dye adsorbed (mgg(-1)) increased with increase in agitation time and reached equilibrium after 120 min, for dye concentrations of 10-50 mg L(-1). The adsorbent dosage of 1.0 g/50 mL and pH of 8.0 were found to be optimum for maximum dye removal. The batch mode adsorption data followed both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The pseudo first- and second-order rate kinetics were applied to the adsorbent system. The adsorption kinetics of rhodamine 6G showed that the pseudo-second-order kinetic model provided the best correlation of the equilibrium data. The study implies that it is possible to develop a dye removal system by using T. harzianum biomass, which occurs as sludge in waste stream of fermentation industries.     

Management of urban solid waste: Vermicomposting a sustainable option

Solid waste management is a worldwide problem and it is becoming more and more complicated day by day due to rise in population, industrialization as well as changes in our life style. Presently most of the waste generated is either disposed of in an open dump in developing countries or in landfills in the developed ones. Landfilling as well as open dumping requires lot of land mass and could also result in several environmental problems. Land application of urban/municipal solid waste (MSW) can be carried out as it is rich in organic matter and contains significant amount of recyclable plant nutrients. The presence of heavy metals and different toxics substances restricts its land use without processing. Vermicomposting of MSW, prior to land application may be a sustainable waste management option, as the vermicast obtained at the end of vermicomposting process is rich in plant nutrients and is devoid of pathogenic organism. Utilization of vermicast produced from urban/municipal solid waste in agriculture will facilitate in growth of countries economy by lowering the consumption of inorganic fertilizer and avoiding land degradation problem. Vermicomposting of urban/MSW can be an excellent practice, as it will be helpful in recycling valuable plant nutrients. This review deals with various aspects of vermicomposting of MSW.     

Refrigeration waste heat utilization for drying applications: a review

ABSTRACT

Cold chain industry has a vast potential for waste heat recovery. It is a matter of importance for energy efficiency point of view, as global energy demand is increasing day by day. Ample amount of low-grade energy is either unutilized or underutilized. The heat rejected by a Heat pump or refrigeration system emerged as a promising solution for dehydration by utilizing low-grade waste heat despite higher investment. As compared to solar drying technology, heat pump drying evolved as a reliable method regarding better process control, energy efficiency, and quality of the product to be dried. Energy utilized through the refrigeration system’s waste/exhaust heat recovery in combination with or without renewable energy source enhances the overall efficiency of the system and also reduces the cost. This useful review investigated and compared the research findings of waste heat utilization through heat pump and from condenser of refrigeration system on laboratory, pilot as well as industrial scale for drying of various fruits, vegetables, and agro products. Various drying parameters like drying rate, moisture content, Specific Moisture Extraction Rate (SMER), Coefficient of Performance (COP), Exergy efficiency, and temperature as well as humidity conditions inside the drying chamber were also reviewed to promote the technological advancement of energy utilization by commercial cold storage waste heat recovery.     

Just waste? municipal waste management and the politics of environmental justice

Municipal waste management in the UK has undergone rapid transformation in recent years in pursuit of greater sustainability. In this paper we explore the environmental justice issues and tensions involved in this shift. After a brief overview of environmental justice debates and how they have been related to issues of waste management, we describe how the policies and processes underlying the transformation from an overwhelming dependence on landfill disposal towards more sustainable methods of management has been driven by European legislation embodying principles premised on fundamental environmental concerns of inter- and intra-generational equity. We analyse the key means through which these principles have been translated to restructure local authority practices and the environmental justice issues arising from the implementation of international policy in regional and local context. Finally, we reflect on the implications of this case study for implementation of policies intended to advance both sustainability and environmental justice.     

Corporate waste accounting at PSE&G: Bringing a companywide system on-line

Waste accounting has become a necessary practice for companies endeavoring to track their wastes toward realizing discrete waste minimization and pollution prevention objectives. Measurement systems and program initiatives certainly must be tested to find out what will repeatedly work for and best serve a company. Public Service Electric and Gas Company (PSE&G) has committed to revolutionizing the processes of managing materials, wastes, and their associated information. In laying out their strategic plan, company representatives specified the need for a companywide waste accounting system to enable them to monitor progress toward achieving two important short-term waste management targets by the close of 1995. Together with the Electric Power Research Institute, PSE&G is implementing a four-year program to install such a system. The results of the first year-and-a-half's work are reported in this article. The purpose of this article is to discuss the results of implementing a waste accounting system on a utility companywide basis. We will address the experience of bringing such a system on-line at PSE&G. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) previously developed a framework and approach for measuring the performance of utility pollution prevention programs called waste accounting, including the development of a software program called Accounting Software Application for Pollution Prevention or ASAPP.¹ These programs were devised to assimilate detailed information from the facility up through the corporate levels.     

Moving up the waste hierarchy: Car boot sales,reuse exchange and the challenges of consumer culture to waste prevention

Moving up the waste hierarchy is a key priority for UK waste policy. Waste prevention requires policy interventions to promote reuse. The term ‘reuse exchange’ has been adopted by UK policy makers to describe a variety of second-hand trading outlets including car boot sales, charity shops and online exchange sites. As waste policy is based on tonnage diverted from disposal (or landfill), policy interventions to promote reuse exchange will be based on the weight of goods estimated to be flowing through these sites. This paper uses a combination of field survey data and scale-up estimation to quantify and characterise the weight of goods exchanged at car boot sales in England in 2012. This is estimated at 50–60 000 tonnes per annum. The paper emphasises that movement up the waste hierarchy brings waste policy into closer contact with household consumption practices. It draws on qualitative research to show that, for participants, car boot sales are not associated with waste prevention. Instead, car boot sales rely on stocks of surplus household goods and exemplify the culture of thrift, which enables more, not less, consumption. The paper shows the collision between the social values that inform thrift and the environmental values that underpin reuse; and it argues that the policy goal of enhanced recovery for reuse might best be achieved by working with consumer culture. Two ways of achieving this are suggested: interventions that make it easier for consumers to do the right thing, through promoting opportunities for the circulation of stocks of surplus goods, for example, through increasing the frequency of car boot sales; and interventions which recognise that car boot sales also generate waste, which could be recovered for reuse.     

Equivocating on the polluter-pays principle: The consequences for Pakistan

The polluter-pays principle has been widely implemented in OECD countries and credited for bring about a significant reduction in pollutant discharge. However, it has had only limited implementation in developing countries. The consequences of not implementing it in developing countries, to the extent they are documented, are limited to estimating the economic damages of environmental degradation. Yet there are several other but seldom documented negative consequences of the failure to implement the polluter-pays principle. These consequences are documented in the case of Pakistan. They include limited construction of effluent treatment plants, heavy dependence on the government and international donors for funding the only two operational common effluent treatment plants, significant operational issues at the two common effluent treatment plants, missed opportunities to build cost-effective common effluent treatment plants and minimal environmental improvements from isolated investments in individual effluent treatment plants in addition to the already documented significant level of environmental degradation due to uncontrolled pollutant discharge.     

Domestic waste recovery by Local Authorities in the UK: a background to the Green Paper

The recent Green Paper ‘War on Waste’ urges local authorities to organize the recovery and re-use of waste materials in their areas. It is ambiguous, however, on the question of whether recovery should be regarded primarily as a commercial venture or a social service. In this article some of the factors to be considered before embarking on a recovery programme are discussed, and the authors identify some of the arguments for and against the view that recovery is properly a local authority service. Questions considered include the costs and savings associated with a recovery scheme, the impact of the activities of opportunists and the role of the private contractor and voluntary organizations.     

Use of an activated carbon from antibiotic waste for the removal of Hg(II) from aqueous solution

Porous carbon has been prepared from waste antibiotic material by a chemical activation method using K(2)CO(3) as an activating reagent. Carbon was studied systematically by the adsorption of nitrogen and iodine. It was found that the process parameters such as activation temperature and activation time are crucial for preparing high-quality activated carbon. The proper choice of the preparation conditions allows to produce microporous activated carbon with a micropore volume up to 0.492 cm(3)/g and a BET surface area of 1260 m(2)/g. Adsorption of mercury(II) from an aqueous solution on antibiotic carbon was investigated under the varying conditions of agitation time, metal ion concentration and pH. The adsorption capacity of the carbon is 129 mg/g.     

Reducing carbon emissions in Portugal: the relative roles of fossil fuel prices,energy efficiency,and carbon taxation

We assess the role of fossil fuel prices, energy efficiency, and carbon taxation in achieving climate policy goals using a dynamic general-equilibrium model of the Portuguese economy. Given the forecasts for international fossil fuel prices, improving energy efficiency and implementing a new carbon tax have significantly different economic and budgetary effects. Greater energy efficiency reduces emissions and has a positive economic effect, but increases public and foreign debt. A carbon tax reduces emissions at a cost for the economy, but leads to positive effects on public and foreign debt. Thus, it is important to pursue both strategies. We estimate that under the reference-price scenario, a steady energy efficiency gain of 2%–2.5% per year and a carbon tax of at least 35 € per tCO₂ are needed to achieve the stated goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 by an amount equivalent to 40% of the emissions in 1990. These views were fully integrated in a proposal presented by the Commission for Environmental Tax Reform to the Portuguese Government in September 2014, and then discussed in Parliament in November 2014, before enacting a new carbon tax on 1 January 2015.