Legislative Approaches to Drought Management

Droughts are a natural scourge with extremely serious socio-economic consequences, leading not only to human suffering and misery, but also to grave environmental deterioration. Some of the impacts of drought may be curbed through technological, economic and legal measures. This paper deals particularly with the last of these.
Legal measures are grouped according to their objectives, such as: the mitigation of drought impacts; the regulation of water use; the control of production and distribution of goods and services; the regulation of the relationship between man and the environment; and the promotion of general socio-economic change.
While developed countries have been able to manage production factors and promote, enact and enforce regulatory legislation, most developing countries face serious restrictions either to managing drought situations or to enforcing any kind of legislation intended to deal either with the impact of drought or with the artificial situations reinforcing these impacts.     

Comparing Hydrogeomorphic Approaches to Lake Classification

A classification system is often used to reduce the number of different ecosystem types that governmental agencies are charged with monitoring and managing. We compare the ability of several different hydrogeomorphic (HGM)—based classifications to group lakes for water chemistry/clarity. We ask: (1) Which approach to lake classification is most successful at classifying lakes for similar water chemistry/clarity? (2) Which HGM features are most strongly related to the lake classes? and, (3) Can a single classification successfully classify lakes for all of the water chemistry/clarity variables examined? We use univariate and multivariate classification and regression tree (CART and MvCART) analysis of HGM features to classify alkalinity, water color, Secchi, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and chlorophyll a from 151 minimally disturbed lakes in Michigan USA. We developed two MvCART models overall and two CART models for each water chemistry/clarity variable, in each case comparing: local HGM characteristics alone and local HGM characteristics combined with regionalizations and landscape position. The combined CART models had the highest strength of evidence (ω_i range 0.92–1.00) and maximized within class homogeneity (ICC range 36–66%) for all water chemistry/clarity variables except water color and chlorophyll a. Because the most successful single classification was on average 20% less successful in classifying other water chemistry/clarity variables, we found that no single classification captures variability for all lake responses tested. Therefore, we suggest that the most successful classification (1) is specific to individual response variables, and (2) incorporates information from multiple spatial scales (regionalization and local HGM variables).     

Approaches to integrated water resource development and management

In southern Africa institutional capacity in the water sector is severely limited by diminishing regular budget and external assistance allocations. The result has been an overall decline in operational water resource management. This is ironic given the international community's current concern with 'integrated' or 'comprehensive' water resources management. Often, so-called integrated attempts at river basin planning and development have been conceived within the framework of a river basin authority or regional master plans. Such large-scale attempts have not necessarily been compatible either with the national capacity in water resources management or the existing institutional and legislative frameworks. In many cases the actual integration of a basin's physical resources and social, economic and environmental demands is poorly executed. To examine a way forward in resolving what is clearly an unsustainable state of affairs, a diagnostic study of the Kafue Basin, Zambia, was carried out in order to identify a set of water resource management options for a basin currently under stress. A physical framework for the Kafue Basin was established and principal subcatchments and hydro-geological subsystems identified. Current water resource issues in the basin are discussed and a multiobjective approach is proposed to allow intersectoral competition for the basin's limited water resources to be reconciled.     

The Approaches to Energy Supply Management in Thailand

Thailand used 42% of its export earnings to pay the 1981 oil import bill of US$3 billion. The present difficult economic situation is caused by the country's increasing dependence on imported oil which has risen from 50% of total energy consumption in 1962 to 75% in 1981. Contributing factors include basic problems in energy consumption patterns, inadequate pricing structures and a lack of a clearly-defined responsibility over the country's energy management. To remedy the present situation the Government is embarking on a large-scale programme based on the utilization of natural gas, hydroelectric power, lignite and imported coal, which should reduce the share of imported oil in Thailand's total energy consumption to 38% in 1990. En 1981, la Thailande a consacré 42 pour cent du revenu de ses exportations à régler sa facture pétrolière qui s'est chiffrée à 3 milliards de dollars des Etats-Unis. Les difficultés de la situation économique actuelle sont le résultat de la dépendance croissante du pays à l'égard du brut d'importation qui représentait, en 1981, 70 pour cent de la consommation totale d'énergie contre 50 pour cent en 1962. Parmi les causes de cette situation, il faut citer les problèmes qui sont à la base des changements de structures de la consommation d'énergie, de mauvaises politiques de prix et l'absence d'une stratégie clairement établie en ce qui concerne la gestion des ressources énergétiques du pays. Pour remédier à cette situation, le gouvernement s'est lancé dans un programme à grande échelle basé sur l'utilisation du gaz naturel, de la force hydroélectrique, du lignite et du charbon d'importation qui devraient pouvoir réquire à 38%, en 1990, la part d'importation du pétrole d'origine érangère de la Thailande Tailandia utilizó el 42 porciento de su ingreso por exportación para pagar tres mil millones de dólares correspondiente a la importación de petróleo durante 1981. La dificultad presente es causada por la creciente dependencia en petróleo importado que ha aumentado del 50 porciento del consumo total de energía en 1962 al 75 porciento en 1981. Los factores que contribuyen a esta situatión son: problemas básicos en la estructura del consumo y de precios y la falta de una clara delimitación de responsabilidades en la administractión del sector de energía. Para remediar esta situación el Gobierno se ha embarcado en un programa de gran escala basado en la utilización de gas natural, energía hidroeléctrica, lignito y carbon importado lo cual deberá reducir al 38 porciento del consumo de 1990 la parte del petróleo importado.     

海水珍珠产业化发展方向与对策

海水珍珠产业的性质具有一定特殊性,决定了海水珍珠产业的技术开发、产业链拓展和组织化等产业化方向。我国海水珍珠产业化水平低,陷入了增产不增收的“高产陷阱”。其基本解决思路和对策是：建立和完善产业发展规划,构建技术创新机制,夯实产业基础,提高产业组织化程度。     

Using Gemi's environmental self-assessment procedure (Esap) to evaluate environmental performance

With increasing expenditures on improving environmental management, there comes a need to determine a return on this investment by measuring performance. One such means of measurement, GEMI's environmental self-assessment procedure (ESAP), is based on a goal of meeting leadership standards and is the focus of this case study. Designed to be a self-assessment tool, the ESAP reflects a company's perceived rating of environmental performance. This perception can be different from actual performance, depending on the objectivity exercised and the level of compliance assurance information available.     

The phenomenological contribution to environmental psychology

This essay considers the value of phenomenology for environmental psychology, first, by examining differences between a conventional scientific approach and phenomenology; second, by presenting substantive phenomenological research meaningful for environmental psychology. Three substantive themes are discussed: (1) a phenomenology of human experience; (2) a phenomenology of physical environment; (3) a phenomenology of the person—world relationship. The essay concludes that conventional research in environmental psychology has sometimes uncritically accepted theories and concepts which are out of touch with the actual fabric of environmental behavior and experience. A phenomenological perspective looks at the person—environment relationship afresh and thus helps to revitalize the ontological, epistemological and methodological foundations of environmental psychology.     

Ecosystem approaches to environmental quality assessment

Environmental quality assessment has to focus more on the quality of whole ecosystems, instead of focusing on the direct effects of a specific stressor, because of a more integrated environmetal policy approach. Yet, how can the ecosystem quality be measured? Partly this is a normative question, a question of what is considered good and bad. At the same time, it is a scientific question, dealing with the problem of low the state of a system as complex as an ecosystem could be measured. Measuring all abiotic and biotic components, not to mention their many relationships, is not feasible. In this article we review several approaches dealing with this scientific question. Three approaches are distinguished; they differ in type of variable set and ecosystem model used. As a result of this, the information about the state of the ecosystem differs: ultimate breadth, comprising information about the whole ecosystem, is at the expense of detail, while ultimate detail is at the expense of breadth. We discuss whether the resultant quality assessments differ in character and are therefore suitable to answer different policy questions.     

A quality approach to environmental communication

Too often in the past, public relations professionals were consulted only when there was a problem—or a crisis—that needed explaining. The author provides a model for a process-oriented approach to environmental communication that focuses on building and sustaining positive public relationships over time. The key is dialogue with critical publics as well as links with other important actors in the environmental drama that can help position you as part of the solution, not the problem.     

The environmental dimension to security issues

Summary Citing topical international instances the author demonstrates that environmental impoverishment is a major cause for tension and hostilities between nations. He makes a strong case that an assessment of security concepts should include a measure of environmental and resource-based stability.Few threats to peace and survival of the human community are greater than those posed by the prospects of cumulative and irreversible degradation of the biosphere on which human life depends. In a global context, true security cannot be achieved by mounting buildup of weapons (defense in a narrow sense), but only by providing basic conditions for solving non-military problems which threaten them. Our survival depends not only on military balance, but on global cooperation to ensure a sustainable biological environment.Report of the Brandt Commission, 1980Dr Norman Myers is a consultant in environment and development. He is a prolific author and served as the General Editor toThe GaiaAtlas of Planet Management (1985). In 1983, Dr Myers was awarded the World Wildlife Fund Gold Medal for his work on conservation.     

探索高等职业院校管理上的新途径

根据高职院校和普通高等院校之间存在着很多差异,指出管理者应认真分析高职院校的特点,有针对地进行管理。目前高职院校在行政与教学管理方面还存在着一些问题。只有解决了这些问题,高职院校才能真正发挥其培养实用型人才的作用。     

New Approaches to Creative Conservation on Farms in South-west England

This paper reports findings from research which sought to examine the characteristics and the behaviour of farms which participate in environmentally friendly farming schemes and initiatives. In contrast with some earlier work in other regions, a wide variety of farmers in the south-west sample had an active level of sympathy or interest in conservation issues, which, despite the broad and at times inaccurate conservation definitions employed by the farmers, led some to spend generously on creative activities, especially woodland planting. However, the importance of geographical influences was paramount, with creative conservation activity almost always undertaken on comparatively poorer land. Poorer land was always most suitable for conservation work, whether that work be done for cosmetic or holistic reasons.     

Regulatory Approaches to the Use of Water for Domestic Purposes

This paper reviews the legislation of various countries on domestic water use at the stage of both withdrawal from the source and consumption. The abstraction of public domain water for domestic consumption is widely exempt from government permits, and is given priority status in the satisfaction of competing demands for water. Restrictions are in effect in various countries as to the amount of water which can be withdrawn, the quality thereof, the final destination of designated sources, and as to land use activities in and around the sources and intakes of domestic and municipal water abstractions. Both direct and indirect regulatory measures are in effect in various countries to assure that city mains water is available to domestic consumers. Interference by industrial consumers is discouraged mainly by means of pricing mechanisms which penalize the withdrawal of excess amounts of city mains water for industrial purposes. Cet article examine la législation en vigueur dans de nombreux pays sur les eaux à usage domestique au stade à la fois du pompage et de la consommation. Le prélèvement des eaux du domaine public pour la consommation domestique est largement exempte des autorisations gouvernementales et jouit d'un statut preférentiel par rapport aux demandes concurrentielles pour l'eau. Des restrictions sont en vigueur dans de nombreux pays en ce qui concerne la quantité d'eau qui peut être prélevée, la qualité de cette eau, la destination finale de sources désignées ainsi que les travaux d'irrigation aux alentours des sources, l'alimentation des foyers domestiques et des collectivités. Des mesures régulatoires directes et indirectes sont en vigueur dans différents pays pour s'assurer que l'eau des conduites municipales est mise à la disposition des usagers domestiques. C'est au niveau des tarifs que l'on empêche les usagers industriels de prélever pour leurs besoins des quantités excessives d'eau des conduites municipales. Este artículo pasa revista a la legislación de varios países con respecto al uso doméstico de agua en las etapas de captación y consumo. La captación de agua de dominio público para uso doméstico esta exento de permisos de gobierno y se le da prioridad a otros usos competitivos. Existen restricciones con respecto a la cantidad y calidad de agua que puede captarse, el destino final y el uso de tierras vecinas a las fuentes y tomas de agua doméstico y municipal. Existen regulaciones directas e indirectas para asegurar que el agua de una sociedad esté disponible al consumidor doméstico. Interferencias por parte del consumidor industrial es restringido principalmente mediante el mecanismo de precios que penaliza el uso excesivo de agua por estos últimos.     

An ecological approach to environmental impact assessment

Carbon cycling analysis is presented as a means for assessing anthropogenic perturbations in an ecosystem. Data from oligotrophic, eutrophic, and dystrophic (bog) lakes are used to show general trends in the lacustrine carbon cycle. The oligotrophic lake is an unstressed system and the eutrophic lake is under nutrient enrichment with high algal standing crops and productivity. The bog lake is a pH-stressed environment that is primarily a grazing ecosystem. It is hoped that a more effective environmental impact assessment will result from the use of carbon cycling as a unifying concept in ecosystem analysis.     

Formulating an ecosystem approach to environmental protection

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has embraced a new strategy of environmental protection that is place-driven rather than program-driven. This new approach focuses on the protection of entire ecosystems. To develop an effective strategy of ecosystem protection, however, EPA will need to: (1) determine how to define and delineate ecosystems and (2) categorize threats to individual ecosystems and priority rank ecosystems at risk. Current definitions of ecosystem in use at EPA are inadequate for meaningful use in a management or regulatory context. A landscape-based definition that describes an ecosystem as a volumetric unit delineated by climatic and landscape features is suggested. Following this definition, ecosystems are organized hierarchically, from megaecosystems, which exist on a continental scale (e.g., Great Lakes), to small local ecosystems.Threats to ecosystems can generally be categorized as: (1) ecosystem degradation (occurs mainly through pollution) (2) ecosystem alteration (physical changes such as water diversion), and (3) ecosystem removal (e.g., conversion of wetlands or forest to urban or agricultural lands). Level of threat (i.e., how imminent), and distance from desired future condition are also important in evaluating threats to ecosystems. Category of threat, level of threat, and distance from desired future condition can be combined into a three-dimensional ranking system for ecosystems at risk. The purpose of the proposed ranking system is to suggest a preliminary framework for agencies such as EPA to prioritize responses to ecosystems at risk.