Educational issues, school settings, and environmental psychology

This paper reviews selected research on classroom and school environments, using a framework that views schools from three perspectives—as places for learning, as places for socialization and as places for psychological development. Studies are included that deal with the impact of noise and classroom design on learning; the relationship between seating position, achievement and status; spatial cognition; the classroom environment and sex role stereotyping; privacy; and density. The need for classrooms to enhance children's feelings of competence, security and self-esteem is also stressed. The goal of the paper is to point out ways in which environmental psychologists can contribute to the improvement of the educational system and to the quality of life in schools.     

A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON OF PRIVACY DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS: A SYSTEMS APPROACH

As a further step in developing a systems model of privacy, variables involved in the process of achieving a condition of privacy were examined cross-culturally. Subjects were students from Ireland, Senegal and the United States. Striking commonalities were found in the reasons why subjects required privacy, the affect that was associated with a desire for privacy, the definition of privacy as a condition of the person, the duration of the average privacy experience and the change in affect at the completion of the experience which supported the suggestion that privacy has a therapeutic effect. Within culture, variability was associated with age, gender and in the case of Senegal, with income. Between culture, variability was hardly noticeable. The majority of the subjects in each culture believed that not being disturbed was the most important element of privacy and grief, fatigue and need to focus were the main affective sets associated with seeking privacy. It is believed that several universals have been identified which may be used in later research, and that the study supports a systems-based model of privacy.     

Fifth-, sixth-, and seventh- grade students’ use of non-classroom spaces during recess: The case of three private schools in Izmir, Turkey

This study investigates fifth, sixth, and seventh grade students’ place preferences between indoor and outdoor non-classroom spaces during recess and their activity patterns in these spaces in three private elementary schools. The study explores whether differences in the variety and organization of the spaces of school facilities have an impact on the place preferences of students and whether students are aware of the reasons for their preferences. Students’ place preferences and their activities were determined with field observations and a 30-item questionnaire with Yes/No and open-ended questions. A total of 173 students (n = 51 School 1; n = 70 School 2; and n = 52 School 3) participated in the questionnaire. The Chi-Square test, a non-parametric statistical analysis test, was used to analyze the students’ answers to the questionnaire. The results indicate that students prefer places which offer variety and which are large enough to avoid congestion and that, in general, students are aware of the spatial features of their environments and make choices accordingly. When students are given a choice of outdoors or indoors, they tend to choose according to which is more conducive to their activities. If both outdoor and indoor spaces are conducive, students tend to use both. If neither is conducive to their activities, students either alter their behavior patterns, for example, developing a preference for stationary activities or staying inside the classroom, or they convert available spaces to accommodate their activities. It is concluded that students are good sources of information in the design and planning of the environments they occupy.     

Open-plan offices: Task performance and mental workload

Open-plan offices are equipped with barriers such as panels and bookshelves to induce the perception of a private workspace. Despite perceived privacy, irrelevant speech contributes to mental workload, poor performance, stress, and fatigue. Certain dispositional variables related to sustained attention might exacerbate the effects of speech-related noise. This study used a 3 × 3 × 2 mixed factor design to determine the effects of two forms of irrelevant speech and individual differences on performance of a real-world verbal task and mental workload. The Expanded Tellegen Absorption Scale (ETAS) based upon Tellegen and Atkinson's scale was used to assess individual differences in focused attention. The NASA Task Load Index was administered to assess mental workload. Main effects of noise were found on performance and mental workload. Irrelevant speech appeared to increase false alarms and completion rates. Workload ratings were higher in the irrelevant speech conditions. Other differences found were among High and Low Task and Imaginative Absorbers, as measured by the ETAS. Recommendations to reduce the impact of irrelevant speech and future research suggestions are provided.     

Gender (in)difference in private offices: A holistic approach for assessing satisfaction and personalization

This research is a combination of gender studies, which highlights differences between men and women, and workplace research, which focuses on the performances that are assumed to affect employee satisfaction. The study proposes a multi-dimensional assessment model that enables consideration of several workplace issues in tandem. Focusing on user satisfaction, the first part of the study is a holistic approach concerned with technical, functional and behavioral variables that provides a broad understanding about gender (in)differences. Personalization, the core issue of the second part of the study, is measured through personal display items, autonomous behavior and office layout preferences of men and women employees. The findings indicate the presence of significant gender differences in terms of satisfaction felt with regard to the behavioral variables. The results also support previous findings indicating that men and women use different personal display items in order to personalize their offices. More women were diagnosed to be changing their room layout on a temporary basis whereas men and women were evidenced for having similar attitudes in making permanent changes and in preferring an office layout for themselves. The findings suggest that gender difference is still a valid subject in workplace research although the differences may not be as sharp as the conventional gender difference myth claims, implying a better understanding of the issues that differently satisfy men and women.     

Influences on individual initiative to use gypsy moth control in New Hampshire,USA

Socioeconomic, demographic, and attitudinal factors likely to influence individual initiative to use control measures against gypsy moth infestation in New Hampshire are examined. Data were acquired through a mail survey from 629 individuals in three targeted towns: Bow, Conway, and Exeter. Using logit regression analysis, numerous variables are shown to be statistically significant in influencing an individual's willingness to use control measures. The influencing factors include: the individual knowing the difference between the gypsy moth caterpillar and the eastern tent caterpillar; the individual being a homeowner rather than a renter; the number of acres of land accompanying the individual's dwelling; the number of trees on the individual's property; the individual's gender; and the individual's level of income. Aesthetic damage and the nuisance caused by gypsy moth infestation were the primary reasons for individuals to use control measures. The results from this study indicate that the motivation behind an individual's initiative to use control measures is influenced by diverse and varying factors. The models, methodology, and results as applied and presented here are exploratory in nature, yet could prove informative for researchers seeking a greater understanding of the interaction between humans and insect pests.     

The role of the social and physical environment in privacy maintenance among the Iban of Borneo

Altman's (1977) theory of privacy as a cultural universal is examined by analyzing the privacy mechanisms of the Iban of Sarawak (Borneo). The Sarawak Dayaks live in communal longhouses which appear to offer little physical opportunity for individual privacy. However, the authors found that social mechanisms were utilized to obtain privacy. Thus, despite the communal physical environment of the Sarawak Iban, support is found for a system of privacy. The implications of these findings for other cultures and settings where the physical environment appears to limit control of privacy is discussed.     

Investigation of declared seating preference and measured cognitive performance in a sunlit room

Current daylighting standards are not sufficient to guarantee a high-quality daylighting experience as they fail to take the behavior of building occupants into consideration. The way that a daylit room is appreciated and used has not been fully explored, especially under sunlighting conditions. This research is the first of its kind to assess how the distance between a subject and a sun patch on the floor is related to a broad range of behavioral responses, including conclusive preference and measured cognitive performance. One hundred subjects participated in a controlled experiment in a work setting. Investigations of the declared preferences of seating area and subjects' cognitive performances indicated that people are not always aware of the environmental factors that influence their behavior. Subjects were generally attracted to sunlight and outdoor views, but they did not necessarily perform best in these preferred areas. Privacy and a sense of control were two hidden factors that greatly affected subjects' decisions and performances. Current daylighting literature and design practice do not pay adequate attention to such factors as sense of visual control or privacy in the design of rooms. On the other hand, the perceived problem of visual glare caused by sunlight penetration did not affect performance as much as subjects believed it would. An additional result suggested that individual behaviors were more affected by environmental elements than were group activities.     

Sustainable Forest Management Preferences of Interest Groups in Three Regions with Different Levels of Industrial Forestry: An Exploratory Attribute-Based Choice Experiment

The challenge of sustainable forest management is to integrate diverse and sometimes conflicting management objectives. In order to achieve this goal, we need a better understanding of the aspects influencing the preferences of diverse groups and how these groups make trade-offs between different attributes of SFM. We compare the SFM preferences of interest groups in regions with different forest use histories based on the reasoning that the condition of the forest reflects the forest use history of the area. The condition of the forest also shapes an individual’s forest values and attitudes. These held values and attitudes are thought to influence SFM preferences. We tested whether the SFM preferences vary amongst the different interest groups within and across regions. We collected data from 252 persons using a choice experiment approach, where participants chose multiple times among different options described by a combination of attributes that are assigned different levels. The novelty of our approach was the use of choice experiments in the assessment of regional preference differences. Given the complexity of inter-regional comparison and the small sample size, this was an exploratory study based on a purposive rather than random sample. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the aggregation of preferences of all individuals within a region does not reveal all information necessary for forest management planning since opposing viewpoints could cancel each other out and lead to an interpretation that does not reflect possibly polarised views. Although based on a small sample size, the preferences of interest groups within a region are generally statistically significantly different from each other; however preferences of interest groups across regions are also significantly different. This illustrates the potential importance of assessing heterogeneity by region and by group.     

PREFERENCES FOR ALLOCATING RIVER RECREATION USE1

Allocating river recreation use to commercial and private sectors on white water rivers has been highly controversial. How this process is implemented may affect not only the availability of recreation opportunities to individual users, but may also negatively impact the user's desire to escape from the pressures and stresses of everyday life. In a study of users of Idaho's Middle Fork of the Salmon River, an Even-Pool allotment technique was preferred over others by the commercial, private, and rejectee individuals sampled. A lottery technique for rationing private use permits was preferred by private users and rejectees, while commercial users preferred Advance Reservation. No relationship was found between the users' stress release/escape expectations and their preferences for the different allotment and rationing techniques studies. Such results suggest that river managers may have considerable latitude in selecting allocation techniques that do not adversely affect on-site recreation experiences.     

Local or global food markets: A comparison of energy use for transport

Abstract

This study compares energy use for food transport to a farmers' market in Sweden with energy use for transport in the conventional food system. The farmers' market was investigated through data sampling from on-site investigations. The conventional food system was studied with the aid of life cycle assessments reported in the literature. Overall, the study found no significant differences in levels of energy use for transport to the farmers' market compared with the conventional food system. For certain products, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, transport-related energy use was much lower in the local system although the season in Sweden for this kind of product is restricted to two or three months at the end of the summer. However, there is considerable potential to increase energy efficiency in local food systems by organizing the selling in new ways and by using more energy efficient vehicles.     

The Influence of Proximity to a National Forest on Emotions and Fire-Management Decisions

Because American national forests are managed for all citizens, it is important that researchers explore the differences and similarities between citizens living both near and far from publicly managed land. We surveyed residents living at various distances from nationally managed land to collect resident perceptions of different forest fire-management techniques, to determine public preferences for these techniques, and to examine the motivations behind these preferences. Participants both close to and far away from national forests tended to favor a multipronged approach to fire management by preferring the use of a combination of two or more fire-management techniques. There were no significant differences by proximity in participants’ self-rated emotions, types of fire-management techniques preferred, or the reasons and rationales for their preferred fire-management technique(s), indicating that the proximity variable may not be as significant as previously thought.     

Scenes from a restaurant: Privacy regulation in stressful situations

Stress results when an individual has less control over an environment or a situation than is desired. One way of regaining control and reducing stress is to regulate privacy by screening the self from spatial, visual or acoustical invasion. This study examined the use of architectural features to regulate privacy under hypothetical situations that are likely to generate low, moderate and high stress, comparing the seating choices of males and females in a variety of dining scenarios in a restaurant. In more stressful circumstances such as those associated with a job interview, participants chose restaurant seating bounded by more architectural features than they did in more relaxed dining situations such as dining with friends. Males and females appeared to be different in their responses to moderate and high stress situations. These results have implications for designers of secondary settings where stressful interactions are likely to take place.     

Recreational Rates and Future Land Use Preferences for Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory Facility

To manage ecosystems it is essential to understand physical properties and biological function, as well as the ecological services and social/cultural perceptions of a variety of stakeholders. Where land managers are required to make decisions about restoration, remediation and future land use, understanding attitudes and future land use preferences is essential. In this paper I synthesize data on five surveys of recreational rates and preferences for future land use for the Department of Energy's Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL). Subjects were interviewed at several well-attended events at different distances from INEEL, representing local and regional views. Between 24 and 59% of the subjects hunted, between 55 and 71% fished, and up to 87% camped, indicating potential for exposure if INEEL were open for recreation. Average recreational rates varied by location, with the Shoshone-Bannock Indians having higher hunting, fishing, hiking and camping rates than all others. There were significant differences in future land use preferences; subjects living close to the site rated nuclear material processing very high, while those living farther away ranked it intermediate. Indians ranked this use the lowest. Using the land as a National Environmental Research Park (NERP) was rated the highest (or nearly the highest) for all groups. Industrial uses were generally rated low by all groups. These data can be used by local planners and policy makers in decision making regarding levels of clean-up, future land use, future end-states and long-term protection and stewardship of these contaminated lands. The relative unanimity in future land use preferences for NERP and recreation, rather than new industrial purposes, provides guidance for remediation, suggesting that residential clean-up standards may be more stringent than required. Further, the relative approval of continued nuclear reprocessing (but not nuclear storage) also provides guidance for risk-based end-state planning.     

Heterogeneous preferences for recreation-oriented management in commercial forests: the role of citizens’ socioeconomic characteristics and recreational profiles

The management of forests for multiple benefits, such as recreational services alongside timber production, can greatly benefit from the knowledge of public preferences for management-related forest attributes. This paper investigates citizens’ recreational use and preferences for recreation-oriented management in the case of state-owned commercial forests in Finland using data from a choice experiment study. We focus on attributes related to the typical management practices applied to enhance recreation: scenic buffer zones along waters, game bird habitats, and the quality of scenery along hiking trails. Recreational use and its frequency were found to be related to citizens’ background and specific outdoor activities. The scenic buffer zones were the most important attribute to the citizens. While the recreation-enhancing practices were generally valued, respondent segments with distinct preferences were found. Preference heterogeneity was related to citizens’ socioeconomic characteristics and recreational profiles.     

Influence of ethnicity on recreation and natural environment use patterns: Managing recreation sites for ethnic and racial diversity

Management of natural environment sites is becoming increasingly complex because of the influx of urbanized society into wildland areas. This worldwide phenomenon impacts a wide range of countries. In southern California ethnicity is often a major factor influencing recreation site use and behavior at sites in the wildland-urban interface. This study investigated the role of ethnicity and race on the use patterns, perception of environment, and recreation behaviors at an outdoor recreation site visited by an ethnically diverse population. Two research questions were asked: (1) What ethnic groups engage in outdoor recreation at this site, and (2) what differences can be assigned to these various groups? Data were collected from 250 recreationists during 1991. Three major ethnic groups were identified, and statistically significant differences were found in the importance of site attributes, activity participation, and in preferred and actual communication channels. Management implications and strategies based on group differences are discussed.     

The use of choice experiments in the analysis of tourist preferences for ecotourism development in Costa Rica

Many nations promote nature-based tourism in order to promote the dual goals of nature conservation and income generation. To be most effective in providing services that facilitate achievement of these goals, decision makers will need to understand and incorporate tourist preferences for nature appreciation, infrastructure, use restrictions, and other attributes of national parks and protected areas. This paper presents the use of choice experiments as a mechanism to analyze preferences of national and international tourists in relation to the development of Barva Volcano Area in Costa Rica. In this section of the Braulio Carrillo National Park, managers are faced with an immediate need to plan for greatly increased visitation rates due to a new road, which will greatly improve access. Choice sets were developed in collaboration with park managers. A survey was conducted of 171 Costa Rican and 271 foreign tourists who visited Poás Volcano, a well-visited alternative site to Barva Volcano. Survey data was analyzed using conditional multinomial logit models. Results of the study demonstrate, that both sets of tourists preferred: (i) improved infrastructure; (ii) aerial trams with observation towers and picnic areas; (iii) more information; and (iv) low entrance fees. Foreign tourists demonstrated strong preferences for the inclusion of restrictions in the access to some trails, whereas Costa Ricans did not show any significant preference for restrictions. Marginal willingness-to-pay for greater information was estimated to be $1.54 for foreign tourists and $1.01 for Costa Rican visitors. The study concludes that choice experiments are a useful tool in the analyses of tourist preferences for the development of protected areas in developing countries.     

Regulating water quantity and quality in irrigated agriculture

This paper largely applies the theoretical model formulated in an earlier paper by the authors, of an input based approach to control an agricultural non-point-source pollution. The empirical problem includes a groundwater aquifer being polluted by several agricultural producers. In order to prevent degradation of the quality and depletion of the quantity of the water in the aquifer, a regulatory agency must intervene. The regulatory agency does not have all the information needed for decision making. The producers» use of water from a surface supply is recorded and additional water is pumped from the ground aquifer, the amount of which is unknown to the agency. The agency also does not know the physical characteristics of the production process that is factored into the pollution process. The model evaluates two monitoring regimes (central and individual) and two regulatory tools (taxes and quotas) associated with each regime. Individual monitoring was found to be superior to central monitoring, both in terms of the physical characteristics of the problem (water quality and quantity) and in terms of regional income. For both the central and the individual monitoring regimes, the optimal paths of the state variables reach steady-state values relatively early, with values in the individual monitoring reaching the steady-state earlier than in the case of central monitoring. The optimal path of investment in monitoring equipment suggested investment in monitoring equipment as early as possible.1998 Academic Press     

Public opinion and interest group positions on open-space issues in Albuquerque,New Mexico,USA: Implications for resource management

The purpose of this research was to elicit and compare the open-space preferences of citizens and openspace experts in Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA. A randomly selected sample of 492 citizens and 35 open-space experts participated in a telephone survey during May 5–18, 1986. The following hypothesis was tested and used as a guideline for the study:HO1: There is no significant difference between respondents' status and preference for open space in Albuquerque, New Mexico.The hypothesis was rejected. Findings confirmed respondents' status affected preference for open space. Of the eight issues on which the citizen and expert groups were compared, five recorded significant differences in response profiles. The open-space expert group was significantly more supportive of using open space to accommodate offroad vehicle facilities, wildlife preserves, a citywide recreational trail, and a trail system along the arroyos and city ditches. The citizen sample was significantly more supportive of using open space to accommodate overnight camping facilities. Both groups equally supported using open space to accommodate an outdoor amphitheater, outdoor education facilities, and rafting, kayaking, and canoeing facilities.The finding indicated that expert preferences did not represent an aggregate of citizen preferences for managing open-space resources. Understanding both expert and citizen positions will facilitate decision-making processes and help resolve environmental disputes.     

Local or global food markets: A comparison of energy use for transport

This study compares energy use for food transport to a farmers' market in Sweden with energy use for transport in the conventional food system. The farmers' market was investigated through data sampling from on-site investigations. The conventional food system was studied with the aid of life cycle assessments reported in the literature. Overall, the study found no significant differences in levels of energy use for transport to the farmers' market compared with the conventional food system. For certain products, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, transport-related energy use was much lower in the local system although the season in Sweden for this kind of product is restricted to two or three months at the end of the summer. However, there is considerable potential to increase energy efficiency in local food systems by organizing the selling in new ways and by using more energy efficient vehicles.