Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pollution Control Systems—V

Several methods are available for estimating the capital costs of systems and each has its own degree of accuracy. These methods range from presenting overall installed costs on a per unit basis, to detailed cost estimates based on preliminary designs, schematics, and contractor quotes. The least accurate method is the equating of overall capital costs to a basic operating parameter such as tons per hour or cfm since this method only produces accuracies in the "order of magnitude" category, at best. The detailed cost estimate, in turn, can produce accuracies of ±5 % depending on the amount of preliminary engineering involved. These estimates, however, take many months of engineering effort and require process and engineering flow sheets, material and energy balances, plot plans, and equipment arrangement drawings before a cost estimate can be developed. For first-cut estimating purposes, the technique described in this article for developing capital costs for a specific pollution control system is based on the factored method of establishing direct and indirect installations costs as a function of known equipment costs. The cost factors developed are based on both quoted and estimated installation costs of pollution control systems. The annual operating costs for these systems are based on unit costs for utilities and operating and maintenance labor together with fixed percentages of capital costs for the indirect costs.     

城镇污水处理厂用地、运行及建设费用研究

汇总收集了国内已建城镇污水处理厂的大量资料,分析探讨了污水处理厂厂区占地面积、运行及建设费用与处理规模之间的关系,为今后污水处理厂的设计规划、工艺选择、建设费用分析等提供参考依据。研究表明污水处理厂厂区占地面积与处理规模可用函数表示,且具有较高的相关性。城镇污水处理厂所选用的工艺和处理规模对其运行成本有较大的影响,分别对大中小规模的污水处理厂在不同工艺下的运行成本进行分析,得出大规模污水处理厂的工艺选择对其运行成本影响不大;中规模污水处理厂易采用氧化沟工艺;小规模的污水处理厂适合采用SBR工艺。建设费用与污水处理规模有密切关系,由于建设费用受多种因素影响,又以江浙地区为例,对其建设费用与污水处理规模之间关系进行具体分析,对以上结论给予一定的补充。     

Allocating Remedial Costs at Superfund Sites with Commingled Groundwater Contaminant Plumes

Remedial efforts at Superfund sites across the country focus on groundwater contaminant plumes that have been produced by contributions from multiple parties. Allocating cleanup costs between the parties in a fair and equitable manner can be a problem of substantial complexity. Considerable time and money may be spent determining the amount of contamination attributable to each party in order to apportion liability. Contaminant plumes that have evolved over long periods of time may affect large volumes of groundwater and require extensive remediation. Pump and treat remedial costs are driven by both the volume of water extracted and the mass of contaminants removed. Allocation methods based solely on the mass of contaminants contributed by each party are inadequate in this setting since they do not account for both components of the remedial costs. This paper presents an approach for equitably allocating remedial costs when addressing overlapping or commingled groundwater plumes. The method accounts for the major elements driving the costs of remediating dispersed contaminant plumes.     

Allocating Remedial Costs at Superfund Sites with Commingled Groundwater Contaminant Plumes

Remedial efforts at Superfund sites across the country focus on groundwater contaminant plumes that have been produced by contributions from multiple parties. Allocating cleanup costs between the parties in a fair and equitable manner can be a problem of substantial complexity. Considerable time and money may be spent determining the amount of contamination attributable to each party in order to apportion liability. Contaminant plumes that have evolved over long periods of time may affect large volumes of groundwater and require extensive remediation. Pump and treat remedial costs are driven by both the volume of water extracted and the mass of contaminants removed. Allocation methods based solely on the mass of contaminants contributed by each party are inadequate in this setting since they do not account for both components of the remedial costs. This paper presents an approach for equitably allocating remedial costs when addressing overlapping or commingled groundwater plumes. The method accounts for the major elements driving the costs of remediating dispersed contaminant plumes.     

Costs, emissions reductions, and vehicle repair: evidence from Arizona

The Arizona inspection and maintenance (I/M) program provides one of the first opportunities to examine the costs and effectiveness of vehicle emission repair. This paper examines various aspects of emission reductions, fuel economy improvements, and repair costs, drawing data from over 80,000 vehicles that failed the I/M test in Arizona between 1995 and the first half of 1996. We summarize the wealth of data on repair from the Arizona program and highlight its limitations. Because missing or incomplete cost information has been a serious shortcoming for the evaluation of I/M programs, we develop a method for estimating repair costs when they are not reported. We find surprising evidence that almost one quarter of all vehicles that take the I/M test are never observed to pass the test. Using a statistical analysis, we provide some information about the differences between the vehicles that pass and those that do not. Older, more polluting vehicles are much more likely never to pass the I/M test, and their expected repair costs are much higher than those for newer cars. This paper summarizes the evidence on costs and emission reductions in the Arizona program, comparing costs and emissions reductions between cars and trucks. Finally, we examine the potential for more cost-effective repair, first through an analysis of tightening I/M cut points and then by calculating the cost savings of achieving different emission reduction goals when the most cost-effective repairs are made first.     

Costs,Emissions Reductions,and Vehicle Repair: Evidence from Arizona

ABSTRACT

The Arizona inspection and maintenance (I/M) program provides one of the first opportunities to examine the costs and effectiveness of vehicle emission repair. This paper examines various aspects of emission reductions, fuel economy improvements, and repair costs, drawing data from over 80,000 vehicles that failed the I/M test in Arizona between 1995 and the first half of 1996. We summarize the wealth of data on repair from the Arizona program and highlight its limitations. Because missing or incomplete cost information has been a serious shortcoming for the evaluation of I/M programs, we develop a method for estimating repair costs when they are not reported. We find surprising evidence that almost one quarter of all vehicles that take the I/M test are never observed to pass the test. Using a statistical analysis, we provide some information about the differences between the vehicles that pass and those that do not. Older, more polluting vehicles are much more likely never to pass the I/M test, and their expected repair costs are much higher than those for newer cars.

This paper summarizes the evidence on costs and emission reductions in the Arizona program, comparing costs and emissions reductions between cars and trucks. Finally, we examine the potential for more cost-effective repair, first through an analysis of tightening I/M cut points and then by calculating the cost savings of achieving different emission reduction goals when the most cost-effective repairs are made first.     

Sizing and Costing of Electrostatic Precipitators

This is the second of a two-part article that reviews electrostatic precipitation theory, presents size estimating methods, and gives costing procedures for a variety of electrostatic precipitator (ESP) types and sizes. Part I of the article, which appeared in the April 1988 issue of JAPCA, discussed theory and sizing; this part presents costing. Information is given for estimating total capital investment including separate costs for the bare ESP (five types) and auxiliaries. Factors are given for installation and for indirect costs. Direct and indirect annual costs are discussed. An example problem is given.     

Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pollution Control Systems — I

This is the first installment of a 4-part series which will present capital and operating costs of selected air pollution control systems. The objective of the Series is to identify the individual component costs so that realistic system cost estimates can be determined for any specific application. In Part I, cost estimating procedures and curves are provided to develop the equipment costs for electrostatic pre-cipitators, venturi scrubbers, fabric filters, incinerators, and adsorbers.     

Sizing and Costing of fabric Filters Part II: Costing Considerations

This is the second of a two-part article that reviews baghouse filtration theory, presents size estimating methods, and gives costing procedures for a variety of baghouse types and sizes. Part I of the article discussed theory and sizing; this part presents costing. Information is given for estimating total capital investment including separate costs for the bare baghouse (five types), bags, and, where needed, cages and Venturis. Factors are given for installation and for indirect costs. Direct and indirect annual costs are discussed. An example problem is given. The material in this article is taken primarily from the EAB Control Cost Manual.     

Single-Stage Dewatering of FGD Waste

The Escalante Unit No. 1 flue gas desulfurization (FGD) waste slurry dewatering system represents the first domestic utility to deviate from the typical industry two-stage dewatering system design. Evaluations conducted during the design phase compared three dewatering options: 1) thickener in series with vacuum filters, 2) thickener in series with centrifuges, and 3) centrifuges with no thickener. The evaluation showed that centrifuges with no thickener (one stage) could significantly reduce capital costs. Coupled with capital costs, this option also decreases operation and maintenance costs, reduces the complexity of the system, saves a considerable amount of space, and centralizes the FGD and dewatering systems within one building. This paper describes the evaluation that took place during the design phase of the project comparing the three dewatering options. Operational data for the first year of operation are presented, and operating and maintenance costs are discussed and compared with conventional two-stage dewatering systems.     

Sulfur Control In Coal Fired Power Plants: A Probabilistic Approach to Policy Analysis

The optimum level of sulfur pollution control for a coal fired power plant is the point where the sum of societal costs, due to pollution, and control costs is minimized. This basic microeconomic concept has been of limited practical value due to considerable uncertainty in estimating both costs. A probabilistic approach is used to characterize these uncertainties quantitatively for a hypothetical 1000 Mw_e plant located near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Only mortality effects within a distance of 80 km of the plant have been included. The results allow explicit consideration of attitude toward risk and appropriate level of investment to prevent deaths. Limitations of the findings are discussed. Implications are described for policy based on alternative sets of values and assumptions.     

Construction and economics of a pilot/full-scale biological trickling filter reactor for the removal of volatile organic compounds from polluted air

The design and the construction of an actual 8.7-m3 pilot/full-scale biotrickling filter for waste air treatment is described and compared with a previous conceptual scale-up of a laboratory reactor. The reactor construction costs are detailed and show that about one-half of the total reactor costs ($97,000 out of $178,000) was for personnel and engineering time, whereas approximately 20% was for monitoring and control equipment. A detailed treatment cost analysis demonstrated that, for an empty bed contact time of 90 sec, the overall treatment costs (including capital charges) were as low as $8.7/1000 m3air in the case where a nonchlorinated volatile organic compound (VOC) was treated, and $14/1000 m3air for chlorinated compounds such as CH2Cl2. Comparison of these costs with conventional air pollution control techniques demonstrates excellent perspectives for more field applications of biotrickling filters. As the specific costs of building and operating biotrickling filter reactors decrease with increasing size of the reactor, the cost benefit of biotrickling filtration is expected to increase for full technical-scale bioreactors.     

A Program Analysis

A comprehensive analysis of inspection maintenance programs is proposed. Effectiveness, costs to the state and to the individual, distribution of cost and benefits, and political and administrative feasibility are examined. Effectiveness is probably the most difficult aspect to project because of changes in design and consequences of maintenance repair on performance. However, using sensitivity analysis, substantial reductions in hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are foreseen, along with a slight increase in NO_x emissions.

The cost to the state to administer the program is estimated to be between $2.00 and $2.50 per vehicle, which could be covered by the inspection fee. The other direct costs for the driver, lost time, travel, and repairs, may be offset by fuel and tuneup savings which could amount to as much as 50% of the repair bill. Analysis of distribution costs and indirect social consequences cannot be completed until additional information about the effect of income on maintenance is generated. Politically the program is feasible but depends on public support which in turn is sensitive to direct repair costs. Administratively the program suffers greatly if private repair facilities do not have enough adequately trained mechanics.

It is concluded that the benefits of an inspection program do not convincingly outweigh the high costs, possible adverse social impacts, and public opposition and that other alternatives should be examined.     

Desulfurization of Caribbean Fuel

An American Petroleum Institute study of desulfurization of Caribbean fuel oil was completed in February 1967. The report is unique in that proprietary information was made available to the contractor, the Bechtel Corp., by task force members and licensors of desulfurization processes. Thus confidential information never before available to a single organization was used to develop feasibility and incremental costs of various processes for desulfurization. The report provides needed guideposts for decision-making by governmental units as well as by industry. Incremental costs are presented for intermediate levels of desulfurization from the normal level for Caribbean heavy fuel oil of 2.6% down to 0.5%, as well as the sensitivity of costs to sulfur credits and to rate of recovery of invested capital. Degree of justifiable confidence in the various data is discussed. Effects of desulfurization on other characterisics of the fuel oil are also discussed.     

The ecological and economic potential of carbon sequestration in forests: examples from South America

Costs of reforestation projects determine their competitiveness with alternative measures to mitigate rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. We quantify carbon sequestration in above-ground biomass and soils of plantation forests and secondary forests in two countries in South America-Ecuador and Argentina-and calculate costs of temporary carbon sequestration. Costs per temporary certified emission reduction unit vary between 0.1 and 2.7 USD Mg(-1) CO2 and mainly depend on opportunity costs, site suitability, discount rates, and certification costs. In Ecuador, secondary forests are a feasible and cost-efficient alternative, whereas in Argentina reforestation on highly suitable land is relatively cheap. Our results can be used to design cost-effective sink projects and to negotiate fair carbon prices for landowners.     

Preliminary estimates of performance and cost of mercury control technology applications on electric utility boilers.

Under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) determined that regulation of mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants is appropriate and necessary. To aid in this determination, preliminary estimates of the performance and cost of powdered activated carbon (PAC) injection-based mercury control technologies were developed. This paper presents these estimates and develops projections of costs for future applications. Cost estimates were developed using PAC to achieve a minimum of 80% mercury removal at plants using electrostatic precipitators and a minimum of 90% removal at plants using fabric filters. These estimates ranged from 0.305 to 3.783 mills/kWh. However, the higher costs were associated with a minority of plants using hot-side electrostatic precipitators (HESPs). If these costs are excluded, the estimates range from 0.305 to 1.915 mills/kWh. Cost projections developed using a composite lime-PAC sorbent for mercury removal ranged from 0.183 to 2.270 mills/kWh, with the higher costs being associated with a minority of plants that used HESPs.     

Improving environmental risk management through historical impact assessments

A historical contaminant impact assessment was conducted at 48 heavy manufacturing facilities located in 20 different states for a U.S.-based company. The facilities evaluated were industrial manufacturing sites that operated for as long as 100 yr and used several types of hazardous substances, including solvents and degreasers, oils and other petroleum products, paints and pigments, and heavy metals. The purpose of conducting the impact assessment was to provide direction and guidance on future environmental objectives and pollution prevention initiatives. The impact assessment involved examining historical investigative and remediation costs since 1985, types of contaminants, subsurface geology, hydrology, and regulatory requirements. The results reveled that 85% of the historical environmental costs were associated with hexavalent chromium and chlorinated solvents. Other contaminants, such as oils and other petroleum products and other heavy metals, were far more commonly detected but only accounted for the remaining 15% of costs. The results also indicated that the costs are also strongly associated with the type of geologic environment to which the chemicals were released. As a result of these findings, an aggressive pollution prevention program has been initiated to eliminate the use of those contaminants that are especially expensive to remediate and to develop stronger and more effective engineering controls at facilities located in sensitive ecological areas.     

the cost of clean energy

Municipal and state regulations limiting the allowable sulfur content of fossil fuels are having the effect of changing fuel use patterns of many of the nation’s utilities. The utility companies are faced with increased costs of lower sulfur fuels and capital expenditures associated with the fuel changes, as well as with greater uncertainty concerning long term supplies of suitable fuels. Capital costs for air pollution control are mounting. Electrostatic precipitators must be built to meet more stringent air pollution codes, and stack heights may have to be increased to improve discharge patterns. Other capital expenditures for added requirements such as steam and electric tracing and pumping equipment must be made to accommodate distinctive characteristics of low sulfur fuels. Air pollution control costs do not result in increased productivity, improved products, or products that will command a better price in the market. Nevertheless, the expenditures are essential. Nuclear power is the long range solution to which many utilities look but, in the shorter view, the power industry must expect continued cost increases in the areas of fuel and operating expenses, capital expenditures and research and development.     

Cheaper Fuel and Higher Health Costs Among the Poor in Rural Nepal

Biomass fuels are used by the majority of resource poor households in low-income countries. Though biomass fuels, such as dung-briquette and firewood are apparently cheaper than the modern fuels indoor pollution from burning biomass fuels incurs high health costs. But, the health costs of these conventional fuels, mostly being indirect, are poorly understood. To address this gap, this study develops probit regression models using survey data generated through interviews from households using either dung-briquette or biogas as the primary source of fuel for cooking. The study investigates factors affecting the use of dung-briquette, assesses its impact on human health, and estimates the associated household health costs. Analysis suggests significant effects of dung-briquette on asthma and eye diseases. Despite of the perception of it being a cheap fuel, the annual health cost per household due to burning dung-briquette (US16.94) is 61.3 (US 16.94) is 61.3% higher than the annual cost of biogas (US 10.38), an alternative cleaner fuel for rural households. For reducing the use of dung-briquette and its indirect health costs, the study recommends three interventions: (1) educate women and aboriginal people, in particular, and make them aware of the benefits of switching to biogas; (2) facilitate tree planting in communal as well as private lands; and (3) create rural employment and income generation opportunities.