Instrumental Method Substitutes for Visual Estimation of Equivalent Opacity

Many air pollution control regulations limit the emission of visible effluents, based on the visual observation of “equivalent opacity.” Because of difficulties encountered in using visual observation, the Texas Air Control Board developed a method of calibration which made it possible to use an instrumental method for measuring visible emissions. A legal regulation based on this instrumental method has been in effect for almost two years. Despite minor difficulties in calibration and maintenance, results have been satisfactory. The use of the instrumental method avoids many of the difficulties inherent in using a regulation based on visual observation, and continued use of the instrumental method is anticipated.     

Lubrication Oil Reservoir Mist Elimination

Visible emissions from lubrication oil reservoir vents on stationary internal combustion engines, compressors and turbines can be virtually eliminated through the use of properly engineered fiber beds. The fiber bed is more successful than other approaches at eliminating visible emissions because of the inherent low pressure drop, minimal or non-existent maintenance requirements, and proven collection efficiency. In fact, with fiber bed technology, visible emissions can be reduced to virtually zero percent opacity. This paper reviews the applicable emission standards, explores the nature of the lubrication oil vent (LOV) oil mist, describes some of the equipment that has previously been used to control LOV emissions, and details the application of fiber beds for this purpose.     

The Atmospheric Dust Problem

This article concerns the control of emissions from a local dolomite plant through a series of corrective measures. With a new State regulation on particulate emissions (process weight table) passed in 1965, and with a new local control program, a goal was established toward which control measures were directed. Inplant investigations revealed that measures would be necessary to eliminate emissions from the pulverizer and conveyor belts. In order to meet State requirements, a better method of collection for the dryer was required. In order to evaluate the effect of these changes on the ambient air, dustfall jars and high-volume air samplers were used and stack sampling was conducted at and around the local dolomite plant and also at another such plant in Venice, Fla. Through successive control and testing, emission factors for dolomite plants, as well as reduction of plant emissions and resident complaints, were established.     

Two-Stage,Dry FGD and Particulate Removal System

The results of the Kansas City-Wyandotte County Department of Health study of operation and maintenance ( O &; M) practices at a fiberglass manufacturing facility and a secondary metals smelter demonstrate the substantial impact of O &; M practices on particulate emissions. Both facilities have a history of O &; M problems leading to excessive particulate emissions.

Over a period of time, detailed O &; M information was obtained from facility management and operating personnel. Extended periods of in plant observation of O &; M procedures were correlated with simultaneous outside observations of visible emissions. O &; M related excessive emission problems at the secondary metals smelter were found usually to be caused by operator errors, compounded by marginally effective control equipment. In contrast, the excessive emissions problems at the fiberglass plant were almost always caused by actual process or control equipment malfunctions. These malfunctions appear to be almost inherent in the types of control equipment used, e.g. water washed high voltage electrostatic precipitators, and occurred despite a comprehensive O &; M program at the fiberglass plant.     

Local emissions trading in developing countries as a transitional strategy toward international greenhouse gas trading: a Beijing example

As is the case in most developing countries, China relies on command-and-control regulation to control air pollution. While it has instituted a modest air pollution levy system in the past 20 years for emissions in excess of standards, the effect on emission levels has been minimal. This paper focuses on how to use emissions trading as a policy instrument to achieve cost-effective reductions in air pollution in Beijing. Emissions or allowance trading has been widely applied to air pollution control in the USA during the past 25 years. Three of the most recent programmes will be examined, which provide applicable experience for possible SO₂ and NO_x trading in the Beijing region. A trading strategy for Beijing will be proposed by comparing the economic and political institutional differences between the USA and China, which could eventually facilitate acceptance of an international greenhouse gas trading system.     

Methods to determine response factors for infrared gas imagers used as quantitative measurement devices

Response factors (RF) can be used to characterize relative sensitivity of one compound vs. another compound for the same measurement instrument. Use of RF allows the analysts/operators to calibrate the instrument with one compound and make measurement for a large number of compounds. This method is adopted for Flame Ionization Detector (FID) based survey instruments used in the Leak Detection and Repair (LDAR) practice for control of fugitive emissions of volatile organic compounds. Gas detecting Infrared (IR) cameras have been used for leak detection. However, the RF for IR cameras has not been well established despite some attempt to develop a method for IR camera RF. In addition to a method proposed earlier (Method 1), two new methods for IR camera RF are proposed in this paper: Method 2 based on theoretical approach and Method 3 based on experimental approach. All three methods are examined and compared. Both Methods 2 and 3 have shown the ability to characterize the behavior of RF for various compounds and substantially higher accuracy than Method 1. Method 2 provides a mechanism to generate RF for a large number of compounds without conducting experiments, and is recommended for implementation. The RF derived from this method can be used both in the emerging field of Quantitative Optical Gas Imaging (QOGI) and to answer the most common question that IR camera users ask—whether a particular compound can be imaged by a particular IR camera.Implications: Infrared imager is an efficient tool for detecting gas leaks from process equipment and has been used in leak detection and repair (LDAR) programs for control of fugitive emissions. However, the information regarding which chemical compounds can be imaged and how sensitive a given infrared imager is for various compounds is limited. A theoretical method is presented in this paper that can answer these questions without conducting resource-intensive experiment. The results of this theoretical method has good agreement with experimental data. The method has been used to predict relative sensitivity for 398 compounds.     

Transient puffs of trace organic emissions from a batch-fed waste propellant incinerator

Emissions data have been obtained from a waste propellant incinerator. The incinerator is a dual fixed hearth, controlled air incinerator equipped with acid gas and particulate scrubbing. "Puffing" has been evident in this waste propellant incinerator by spikes in the CO concentration. Transient puffs of organics may travel down the combustion chambers and lead to stack emissions. The major conclusions from this study are that (1) transient puffs are formed due to the semi-batch feed nature of the combustion process (causing a local oxygen deficiency) and high water content of the desensitized propellant; (2) in batch-fed combustors, puffs can contribute to most of the organic emissions (which are relatively low) measured with US EPA sampling and analytical methods; (3) it is estimated that batch-fed combustion contributes up to 7-18 times more emissions than steady-state combustion will generate; (4) by applying dispersion analyses to determine the amount of oxygen deficiency in the flame zone, the combustion zone concentration of CO during batch-fed operation could be as high as 160,000 ppm, compared to a measured peak stack concentration of 1200 ppm CO; and (5) an organic sample is collected and averaged over at least a 2-h period that smooths out the transient peaks of organics emissions during batch-fed operation. For emissions that are associated with long-term potential health impacts, this is an appropriate sampling method. However, if a compound has a short-term potential health impact, it may be important to measure the time-resolved emissions of the compound.     

Controlling lead concentrations in human blood by regulating the use of lead in gasoline

After having been emitted at maximum rates in the 1960s and 1970s, lead has become less ubiquitous in industrialized countries as a result of increasingly stringent policies to limit the use of this heavy metal as an anti-knock additive in gasoline. Using a detailed reconstruction of lead emissions in Europe (PbE), of the air concentration of lead in Europe (PbC) and repeated measurements of lead concentrations in human blood (PbB) in Germany since about 1980, we have constructed an empirical model that estimates PbB given PbE. This model is used for 2 purposes: i)To estimate PbB levels for the 1960s and 1970s in Germany, when emissions were maximum and monitoring blood levels had not yet begun. It turns out that PbB peak emissions were reaching a mean level, which health officials considered potentially harmful for fetuses and small children. ii) To estimate how PbB levels may have developed if regulations of the use of lead in gasoline had been implemented differently. In case of no or delayed regulations, the model estimates that PbB levels well beyond the critical level would have emerged. Thus, the regulation instituted in Germany since the 1970s has reduced significant health hazards.     

The wind-frequency allocation method on discharge loading of function zones

This paper introduces a new allocation method on discharge loading of each function zone in a total emission control region. The wind frequency, the position of each district, and the pollutant's influence area were taken into account in this new method. The concept of "average downwind distance" was brought forward in this paper. The method here is more reasonable than the original method of area distribution, which was proposed by the "A-value" method in regulation of total emissions in China, by means of the simulation of annual average concentration in the total emission control region.     

An assessment of air emissions from liquefied natural gas ships using different power systems and different fuels

The shipping industry has been an unrecognized source of criteria pollutants: nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds, coarse particulate matter (PM10), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Liquefied natural gas (LNG) has traditionally been transported via steam turbine (ST) ships. Recently, LNG shippers have begun using dual-fuel diesel engines (DFDEs) to propel and offload their cargoes. Both the conventional ST boilers and DFDE are capable of burning a range of fuels, from heavy fuel oil to boil-off-gas (BOG) from the LNG load. In this paper a method for estimating the emissions from ST boilers and DFDEs during LNG offloading operations at berth is presented, along with typical emissions from LNG ships during offloading operations under different scenarios ranging from worst-case fuel oil combustion to the use of shore power. The impact on air quality in nonattainment areas where LNG ships call is discussed. Current and future air pollution control regulations for ocean-going vessels (OGVs) such as LNG ships are also discussed. The objective of this study was to estimate and compare emissions of criteria pollutants from conventional ST and DFDE ships using different fuels. The results of this study suggest that newer DFDE ships have lower SO2 and PM2.5/PM10 emissions, conventional ST ships have lower NOx, volatile organic compound, and CO emissions; and DFDE ships utilizing shore power at berth produce no localized emissions because they draw their required power from the local electric grid.     

Fine urban and precursor emissions control for diesel urban transit buses

Particulate emission from diesel engines is one of the most important pollutants in urban areas. As a result, particulate emission control from urban bus diesel engines using particle filter technology is being evaluated at several locations in the US. A project entitled "Clean Diesel Air Quality Demonstration Program" has been initiated by the New York City Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) under the supervision of New York State Department of Environmental Conservation and with active participation from Johnson Matthey, Corning, Equilon, Environment Canada and RAD Energy. Under this program, several MTA transit buses with DDC Series 50 engines were equipped with Continuously Regenerating Technology (CRTTM) particulate filter systems and have been operated with ultra low sulfur diesel (<30 ppm S) in transit service in Manhattan since February 2000. These buses were evaluated over a 9-month period for durability and maintainability of the particulate filter. In addition, an extensive emissions testing program was carried out using transient cycles on a chassis dynamometer to evaluate the emissions reductions obtained with the particle filter. In this paper, the emissions testing data from the Clean Diesel Air Quality Demonstration Program are discussed in detail.     

A survey of California plant species with a portable VOC analyzer for biogenic emission inventory development

An accurate estimate of the magnitude of biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions in California's airsheds is critical for formulating effective strategies to reduce concentrations of fine particles, ozone, and other secondary air pollutants which affect human health and reduce yields of agricultural crops. However, California's natural and urban landscapes contain more than 6000 species, and the BVOC emissions from only a small fraction of these species have been characterized by quantitative measurements. A taxonomic method has been proposed to assign BVOC emission rate measurements to unmeasured species, but data are needed for additional plant families and genera to further develop and test this taxonomic approach. In the present study, BVOC emissions from more than 250 plant species were measured through a semi-quantitative method employing calibrated portable analyzers with photoionization detectors (PID). Replicate samples of live foliage were placed in plastic bags, in both light and darkened conditions, and the BVOC emissions categorized as low, medium or high. To validate our approach, for 63 plant species we compared our PID-measured BVOC emissions with published values, based on gas chromatography (GC) or GC–mass spectrometry, and found them to be well correlated. The method employed was more suited for detecting compounds with relatively higher emission rates, such as isoprene, than compounds with low emission rates, which could include monoterpenes and oxygenated compounds. For approximately 200 plant species not previously measured, the results provide further evidence that plant taxonomy can serve as a useful guide for generalizing the emissions behavior of many, but not all, plant families and genera.     

Light-Duty Motor Vehicle Exhaust Particulate Matter Measurement in the Denver,Colorado, Area

ABSTRACT

A study of particulate matter (PM) emissions from in-use, light-duty vehicles was conducted during the summer of 1996 and the winter of 1997 in the Denver, CO, region. Vehicles were tested as received on chassis dynamometers on the Federal Test Procedure Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and the IM240 driving schedule. Both PM10 and regulated emissions were measured for each phase of the UDDS. For the summer portion of the study, 92 gasoline vehicles, 10 diesel vehicles, and 9 gasoline vehicles with visible smoke emissions were tested once. For the winter, 56 gasoline vehicles, 12 diesel vehicles, and 15 gasoline vehicles with visible smoke were tested twice, once indoors at 60 °F and once outdoors at the prevailing temperature. Vehicle model year ranged from 1966 to 1996. Impactor particle size distributions were obtained on a subset of vehicles. Continuous estimates of the particle number emissions were obtained with an electrical aerosol analyzer. This data set is being provided to the Northern Front Range Air Quality Study program and to the State of Colorado and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for use in updating emissions inventories.     

The Wind-Frequency Allocation Method on Discharge Loading of Function Zones

Abstract

This paper introduces a new allocation method on discharge loading of each function zone in a total emission control region. The wind frequency, the position of each district, and the pollutant’s influence area were taken into account in this new method. The concept of “average downwind distance” was brought forward in this paper. The method here is more reasonable than the original method of area distribution, which was proposed by the “A-value” method in regulation of total emissions in China, by means of the simulation of annual average concentration in the total emission control region.     

Flame lonization Hydrocarbon Analyzer

Outbreaks of bronchial asthma, defined by sharp peaks above the average number of emergency room visits at Charity Hospital in New Orleans, have been noted in this city since the early 1950’s. These outbreaks have occurred during the summer and fall, with the months of October and November containing the most frequent and severest episodes. Early work on this problem associated emissions from spontaneous underground burning in abandoned city dumps with the high incidence and extracts for skin testing prepared from the emissions produced a significant number of positive skin tests in persons involved in the asthma outbreaks. Recent investigation showed that other sources of allergenic air pollution in the city were related to the epidemics of asthma. Attention has been focused on a large public grain elevator at the Mississippi River in the southwestern portion of the city. Grain extracts have produced high percentages of positive responses in susceptible patients with low response rate found in control subjects. Persons known to have participated in these outbreaks have been characterized as being allergic; a low incidence of patients with chronic bronchitis and emphysema has been found in this group. New meteorological data regarding the outbreak periods has been collected.     

Cross-Media Environmental Impacts of Air Pollution Regulations for a Coal-Fired Power Plant

The types and rates of pollutant emissions from a coal-fired power plant depend upon plant design, coal characteristics, and environmental control policy. In the past, air pollution regulations were often promulgated without rigorous analysis of the resulting energy penalties and secondary environmental impacts that occur in other environmental media (air, land, or water), which are counterproductive to overall environmental quality. This paper describes a Comparative Assessment Model that has been developed to consider systematically such tradeoffs for conventional and advanced coal-to-electric technologies. The model is applied to quantify the secondary (“cross-media”) environmental and resource impacts resulting from alternative air pollution control policies that reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from a 1000 MW power plant. Multimedia pollutant burdens are presented, together with the increased requirements for coal, limestone, and water that are incurred in generating a fixed net quantity of electricity. The development of sound public policy requires that environmental regulations be sensitive to adverse effects in all environmental media, and that tradeoffs involved in the regulation of specific pollutants to one medium be rigorously and systematically characterized.     

Regional air pollution at a turning point

The control of transboundary air pollution in Europe has been successful. Emissions of many key pollutants are decreasing and there are signs of improvements in damaged ecosystems. The strategies under development within the CAFE programme under the European Commission and the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), aim to take regional air pollution control a large step further, in particular with respect to small particles. In this paper we highlight the new strategies but look primarily at socioeconomic trends and climate change feedbacks that may have a significant influence on the outcome of the strategies and which so far have not been considered. In particular, we point out the influence on air quality of increased summer temperatures in Europe and of increasing emissions including international shipping, outside of Europe. Taken together the further emissions reductions in Europe and the increasing background pollution, slowly cause a greying of the Northern Hemisphere troposphere rather than the traditional picture of dominant emissions in Europe and North America ('black') with much lower emission intensities elsewhere ('white'). A hemispheric approach to further combat air pollution will become necessary in Europe and elsewhere.     

Development of an Odor Panel for Evaluation of Odor Control Equipment

The odor panel using the syringe dilution technique has been successfully used to judge the effectiveness of control equipment in eliminating industrial odor problems by monitoring stack emissions. Data is presented using this odor panel method for efficiency tests of direct-flame fume incinerators performed in a large variety of industrial process applications, including pulp and paper mills, rubber processing plants, food processing plants, wire enameling plants, glass fiber manufacturing plants, paint bake ovens, brake manufacturing plants, caster manufacturing plants, rendering plants, and chemical plants. Test data shows that this method of measuring odor using the syringe dilution technique is a useful and practical tool in analyzing odor problems and determining the effectiveness of control equipment by monitoring stack emissions.