Impact of three interactive Texas state regulatory programs to decrease ambient air toxic levels

The Federal Clean Air Act (FCAA) framework envisions a federal-state partnership whereby the development of regulations may be at the federal level or state level with federal oversight. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes National Ambient Air Quality Standards to describe “safe” ambient levels of criteria pollutants. For air toxics, the EPA establishes control technology standards for the 187 listed hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) but does not establish ambient standards for HAPs or other air toxics. Thus, states must ensure that ambient concentrations are not at harmful levels. The Texas Clean Air Act authorizes the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ), the Texas state environmental agency, to control air pollution and protect public health and welfare. The TCEQ employs three interactive programs to ensure that concentrations of air toxics do not exceed levels of potential health concern (LOCs): air permitting, ambient air monitoring, and the Air Pollutant Watch List (APWL). Comprehensive air permit reviews involve the application of best available control technology for new and modified equipment and ensure that permits protect public health and welfare. Protectiveness may be demonstrated by a number of means, including a demonstration that the predicted ground-level concentrations for the permitted emissions, evaluated on a case-by-case and chemical-by-chemical basis, do not cause or contribute to a LOC. The TCEQ's ambient air monitoring program is extensive and provides data to help assess the potential for adverse effects from all operational equipment in an area. If air toxics are persistently monitored at a LOC, an APWL area is established. The purpose of the APWL is to reduce ambient air toxic concentrations below LOCs by focusing TCEQ resources and heightening awareness. This paper will discuss examples of decreases in air toxic levels in Houston and Corpus Christi, Texas, resulting from the interactive nature of these programs.

Implications: Texas recognized through the collection of ambient monitoring data that additional measures beyond federal regulations must be taken to ensure that public health is protected. Texas integrates comprehensive air permitting, extensive ambient air monitoring, and the Air Pollutant Watch List (APWL) to protect the public from hazardous air toxics. Texas issues air permits that are protective of public health and also assesses ambient air to verify that concentrations remain below levels of concern in heavily industrialized areas. Texas developed the APWL to improve air quality in those areas where monitoring indicates a potential concern. This paper illustrates how Texas engaged its three interactive programs to successfully address elevated air toxic levels in Houston and Corpus Christi.     

Industrial Responsibilities in and Advantages from the Control of Air Pollution

The requirements for public participation in air pollution control programs have been significantly increased by the 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments. This paper is directed to state and local agency officials, to assist them in carrying out these responsibilities under the Act. The changes in the Act and the guidelines that have been issued pursuant to these new provisions are summarized. The elements of an effective public participation program are described. The current status of public participation in state implementation plan revision programs is reported.     

The Clean Air Act and its Implications for Training Requisite Personnel

The Clean Air Act, Public Law 88-206, was signed into law on December 17, 1963. Among the new provisions was the authorization given to the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to award grants for the support of State and local air pollution control programs. The Chief, Division of Air Pollution, then requested the Surgeon General’s Air Pollution Training Committee to make recommendations for the most effective way to train the required numbers of people. The Committee called a special three-day meeting at Airlie House with about 30 consultants. Recommendations for training stemming from the meeting included: (1) University-based programs combined with practical experience in control program. (2) Criteria for the selection of trainees. (3) The outline of a model program. These recommendations were submitted to the Chief, Division of Air Pollution and are currently reflected in the activation of one program and a request to the Congress for funds to initiate two more such programs during Fiscal Year 1966.     

Cofiring Hazardous Waste Fuels in Industrial Processes

Although energy-intensive industrial processes have the potential to incinerate hazardous wastes while effecting fuel cost savings, increased government regulation and heightened public interest require that the financial aspects of a hazardous waste fuel (HWF) program be considered fully. Apparent fuel savings are offset by the capital requirements for institutional factors such as permitting and public relations. This paper provides cost information for initiating and operating a HWF program, and outlines the steps required to perform a thorough financial analysis. Falling fuel prices lessen the appeal of HWF programs, and unless the facility is paid to accept the HWF, only very large users (more than 80 × 10⁹ Btu/yr) of energy can consider them. The paper includes a figure from which the reader can estimate the return on investment for HWF programs over a range of program sizes (80 × 1200 × 10⁹ Btu/yr).     

Fundamentals of Successful Monitoring,Reporting, and Verification under a Cap-and-Trade Program

Abstract

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed and implemented the Acid Rain Program (ARP), and NO_x Budget Trading Programs (NBTP) using several fundamental monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) elements: (1) compliance assurance through incentives and automatic penalties; (2) strong quality assurance (QA); (3) collaborative approach with a petition process; (4) standardized electronic reporting; (5) compliance flexibility for low-emitting sources; (6) complete emissions data record required; (7) centralized administration; (8) level playing field; (9) publicly available data; (10) performance-based approach; and (11) reducing conflicts of interest. Each of these elements is discussed in the context of the authors’ experience under two U.S. cap-and-trade programs and their potential application to other capand-trade programs.

The U.S. Office of Management and Budget found that the Acid Rain Program has accounted for the largest quantified human health benefits of any federal regulatory program implemented in the last 10 yr, with annual benefits exceeding costs by >40 to 1. The authors believe that the elements described in this paper greatly contributed to this success. EPA has used the ARP fundamental elements as a model for other cap-and-trade programs, including the NBTP, which went into effect in 2003, and the recently published Clean Air Interstate Rule and Clean Air Mercury Rule. The authors believe that using these fundamental elements to develop and implement the MRV portion of their cap-and-trade programs has resulted in public confidence in the programs, highly accurate and complete emissions data, and a high compliance rate (>99% overall).     

Integrated evaluation of aerogenic pollution by air-transported heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni, Zn, Mn and Cu) in the analysis of the main deposit media

The composition of the ambient air is constantly changing; therefore, the monitoring of ambient air quality to detect the changes caused by aerogenic pollutants makes the essential part of general environmental monitoring. To achieve more effective improvement of the ambient air quality, the Directive 2008/50/EC on ‘Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe’ was adopted by the European Parliament and the European Council. It informed the public and enterprises about a negative effect of pollution on humans, animals and plants, as well as about the need for monitoring aerogenic pollutants not only at the continuous monitoring stations but also by using indicator methods, i.e. by analysing natural deposit media. The problem of determining the relationship between the accumulation level of pollutants by a deposit medium and the level of air pollution and its risks is constantly growing in importance. The paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the response of the main four deposit media, i.e. snow cover, soil, pine bark and epigeic mosses, to the long-term pollution by aerogenic pollutants which can be observed in the area of oil refinery influence. Based on the quantitative expressions of the amounts of the accumulated pollutants in the deposit media, the territory of the oil refinery investigated in this paper has been referred to the areas of mild or moderate pollution.     

An Alternate Compliance Strategy for Title III of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments

ABSTRACT

An alternate compliance strategy (ACS) is developed which incorporates pollution prevention and flexibility to replace traditional end-of-pipe (EOP) control strategy regulation. The ACS takes into consideration the intent of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) to incorporate pollution prevention into regulations and provides a viable mechanism for implementation. This proposed new compliance strategy was developed after studying the CAAA regulations, related compliance issues, and pollution prevention literature. The ACS is defined by amending language in the Hazardous Organic National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (HON) regulation into a performance-based standard permitting regulated facilities to design compliance programs to meet all requirements.

A change in regulation is considered reasonable only if it forces the same emission reductions, reduces risk a comparable amount, and is acceptable to the public, the regulators, and the regulated industry. In order to demonstrate that the ACS can meet all these requirements, an example application is summarized from an ethylene oxide-ethylene glycol plant. The example demonstrates that the ACS reduces hazardous air pollution (HAP) emissions more than the HON rule requires. Three evaluation methods are developed and applied to further demonstrate the acceptability of the ACS. They include a qualitative evaluation matrix, a total cost assessment, and

a risk reduction measurement model. Results indicate that the ACS provided a preferable compliance program.

The ACS should be adopted as an alternative method of compliance. It provides a major step in the progression of regulations from the traditional EOP treatment philosophy to pollution prevention performance-based standards.     

Assessing the impact of the acid deposition control program

A goal of the acidic deposition control program in the United States has been to link emissions control policies, such as those mandated under Title IV of the US Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, to improvements in air and water quality. Recently, several researchers have reported trends in the time series of pollutant data in an effort to evaluate the effectiveness of the CAAA in reducing the acidic deposition problem. It is well known that pollutant concentrations are highly influenced by meteorological and climatic variations. Also, spatial and temporal inhomogeneities in time series of pollutant concentrations, induced by differences in the data collection, reduction, and reporting practices, can significantly affect the trend estimates. We present a method to discern breaks or discontinuities in the time series of pollutants stemming from emission reductions in the presence of meteorological and climatological variability. Using data from a few sites, this paper illustrates that linear trend estimates of concentrations of SO₂, aerosol SO₄²⁻, and precipitation-weighted SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ can be biased because of such complex features embedded in pollutant time series.     

Artificial radioactivity in environmental media (air, rainwater, soil, vegetation) in Austria after the Fukushima nuclear accident

Several environmental media in Austria were monitored for artificial radionuclides released during the Fukushima nuclear accident. Air (up to 1.2 mBq/m³ particulate ¹³¹I) and rainwater (up to 5.2 Bq/L ¹³¹I) proved to be the media best suited for the environmental monitoring, allowing also a temporal resolution of the activity levels. Significant regional differences in the wet deposition of ¹³¹I with rain could be observed within the city of Vienna during the arrival of the contaminated air masses. Forward-trajectory analysis supported the hypothesis that the contaminated air masses coming from the northwest changed direction to northeast over Northern Austria, leading to a strong activity concentration gradient over Vienna. In the course of the environmental monitoring of the Fukushima releases, this phenomenon—significant differences of ¹³¹I activity concentrations in rainwater on a narrow local scale (8.1 km)—appears to be unique. Vegetation (grass) was contaminated with ¹³¹I and/or ¹³⁷Cs at a low level. Soil (up to 22 Bq/kg ¹³⁷Cs) was only affected by previous releases (nuclear weapon tests, Chernobyl). Here, also significant local differences can be observed due to different deposition rates during the Chernobyl accident. The effective ecological half-lives of ¹³⁷Cs in soil were calculated for four locations in Austria. They range from 7 to 30 years. No Austrian sample investigated herein exceeded the detection limit for ¹³⁴Cs; hence, the Fukushima nuclear accident did not contribute significantly to the total radiocesium inventory in Austrian environmental media. The levels of detected radioactivity were of no concern for public health.     

Investigating Inhalation Hazard Using Synthetic Radioactive Fallout

Air pollution control efforts by federal, State, regional, and municipal agencies and by industry have expanded tremendously within the past few years. That this increased effort is a reflection of elevated public understanding of the problem and rising public insistence upon action is inescapable. Through all media of mass communication, through the efforts of public service organizations, and through the actions and pronouncements of public officials at all levels of government, the popular desire for better control of air pollution is being expressed with mounting frequency and increasing impact. This fact, in addition to generating an unprecedented expansion in control activity, requires that communication between the individuals and agencies responsible for air pollution control and the citizen, to whom this responsibility is owed, be open, comprehensive, and forthright. Any other response to the need for public information and education concerning the problem of air pollution must in the long run seriously jeopardize the air pollution control effort.     

New York State’s Action for Clean Air Program

In New York State there is a tradition of teamwork between industry and government toward air pollution control programs. This was demonstrated initially when Associated Industries assisted in writing New York State’s Air Pollution Control Law. Industry in New York State has accepted a two-way responsibility for educating industry and the public. New York State’s Department of Public Health has organized an “Action for Clean Air” program and Associated Industries of New York has joined with official agencies in promoting the public information program to lessen the possibility of hysteria.     

California Experience with Air Quality Standards

Air quality standards have existed in California for almost six years. They have become an important part of the State’s air pollution control program.

The two principal uses of the standards have been to establish the goals for controlling motor vehicle emissions and to provide a basis for evaluating air quality throughout the State. The standards have also proved to be valuable as a means of communicating on air pollution problems with legislators, administrators, the press, the public, and dischargers of pollutants.

Lack of adequate data on the effects of varying concentrations of contaminants of concern in air pollution is a serious limitation in any effort to establish air quality standards.It is important that this data be obtained.

The concept of employing air quality standards as administrative goals is not unique to the air pollution field but is part of a broad trend to utilize standards for insuring a satisfactory environment. Those engaged in the air pollution field can expect to see increasing emphasis on such standards.

Air quality standards do not provide a magic formula for eliminating air pollution; they are but one element in a comprehensive program. They have limitations and are no better than the data upon which they are based. The standards, however, can play an important role in preserving satisfactory air quality and protecting man’s health.

In using air quality standards, one should keep in mind the comments of H. W. Streeter⁵ on water quality standards—“Let us devise them, try them, revise them, and apply them, but also remember that they are but ’feeble instruments of the human will’ and like all other such tools are made to be discarded for better ones when they become worn out.“     

The Australian Air Quality Forecasting System: The Use of Green Scenarios of Motor Vehicle Usage as an Educational Tool

Abstract

The Australian Air Quality Forecasting System (AAQFS) is one of several newly emerging, high-resolution, numerical air quality forecasting systems. The system is briefly described. A public education application of the air quality impact of motor vehicle usage is explored by computing the concentration and dosage of particulate matter less than 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM₁₀) for a commuter traveling to work between Geelong and Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, under “business-as-usual” and “green” scenarios. This application could be routinely incorporated into systems like AAQFS. Two methodologies for calculating the dosage are described: one for operational use and one for more detailed applications. The Clean Air Research Programme-Personal Exposure Study in Melbourne provides support for this operational methodology. The more detailed methodology is illustrated using a system for predicting concentrations due to near-road emissions of PM₁₀ andapplied in Sydney.     

A System for Abatement Control Strategy Evaluation

The Air Quality Control Program of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has developed an implementation plan for the Metropolitan Boston Intrastate Air Quality Control Region as required by PL 90-148. An essential part of the plan was a set of control regulations designed to achieve and maintain an air quality compatible with adopted standards. Control strategy modeling was used as a tool in selecting the most appropriate regulations to achieve this goal. The body of information presented in this paper is directed to those state and county air pollution control officials concerned with the formulation and evaluation of regulations.

The paper details the procedures developed and presents a case history of their use in the region. The system is a synthesis of generally-available software and newly-developed computer programs to provide ahighly automated computational structure. It permits rapid simulation of the emissions resulting from the application of various control regulations. Predictions on the changes expected in ambient air quality levels are then made by the use of the Air Quality Display Model (AQDM).

The initial step in the application was a calibration of the system using predicted and measured annual concentrations. This step yielded correlation coefficients of 0.92 for sulfur dioxide and 0.85 for particulates. Subsequently, the system was used to evaluate the baseline case of uncontrolled sulfur in fuel use. Alternative sulfur control strategies were tested for compatibility with air quality standards. The principal strategies tested were: (a) 1% sulfur uniformly throughout the region; (6) 1% sulfur in core area of region, 2.2% sulfur elsewhere; (c) 0.5% sulfur in core area of region, 2.2% sulfur elsewhere; (d) 0.5% sulfur in core area of region, 1.0% sulfur elsewhere.

Strategies (b) and (d) were implemented into a time phased set of control regulations for the region.

Experience with the system has shown it to be a convenient and rapid method for simulating the effects of control regulations. Furthermore, the utility of this initial model warrants expansion of its application to the other air quality control regions in the Commonwealth.     

Will the circle be unbroken: a history of the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards

In celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Air & Waste Management Association, this review examines the history of air quality management (AQM) in the United States over the last century, with an emphasis on the ambient standards programs established by the landmark 1970 Clean Air Act (CAA) Amendments. The current CAA system is a hybrid of several distinct air pollution control philosophies, including the recursive or circular system driven by ambient standards. Although this evolving system has resulted in tremendous improvements in air quality, it has been far from perfect in terms of timeliness and effectiveness. The paper looks at several periods in the history of the U.S. program, including: (1) 1900-1970, spanning the early smoke abatement and smog control programs, the first federal involvement, and the development of a hybrid AQM approach in the 1970 CAA; (2) 1971-1976, when the first National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were set and implemented; (3) 1977-1993, a period of the first revisions to the standards, new CAA Amendments, delays in implementation and decision-making, and key science/policy/legislative developments that would alter both the focus and scale of air pollution programs and how they are implemented; and (4) 1993-2006, the second and third wave of NAAQS revisions and their implementation in the context of the 1990 CAA. This discussion examines where NAAQS have helped drive implementation programs and how improvements in both effects and air quality/control sciences influenced policy and legislation to enhance the effectiveness of the system over time. The review concludes with a look toward the future of AQM, emphasizing challenges and ways to meet them. The most significant of these is the need to make more efficient progress toward air quality goals, while adjusting the system to address the growing intersections between air quality management and climate change.     

Public Opinion and Community Involvement

A poll conducted by Opinion Research Corp. in 1965 has indicated to the chemical industry that there is substantial public concern with air pollution only in areas where the problem is critical, that industries are considered among the prime villains, and that there is only limited public awareness of industrial efforts to deal with pollution problems and of the economic factors in community pollution control programs. Other surveys have also pointed to rising public concern with industrial pollution, coupled with a lack of wider standing of the problem. The chemical industry believes that pollution control programs will be greatly handicapped without widespread public understanding and support.     

Airshed Model Evaluation of Reactivity Adjustment Factors Calculated with the Maximum Incremental Reactivity Scale for Transitional-Low Emission Vehicles

Abstract

The California Air Resources Board recently adopted regulations for light- and medium-duty vehicles that require reductions in the ozone-forming potential or “reactivity,” rather than the mass, of nonmethane organic gas (NMOG) emissions. The regulations allow sale of all alternatively fueled vehicles (AFVs) that meet NMOG exhaust emission standards equivalent in reactivity to those set for vehicles fueled with conventional gasoline. Reactivity adjustment factors (RAFs), the ratio of the reactivity (per gram) of the AFV exhaust to that of the conventionally fueled vehicle (CFV), are used to correct the stringent exhaust emission standards. Complete chemical speciation of the exhaust and conversion of each NMOG species to an appropriate mass of ozone using the maximum incremental reactivity (MIR) scale of Carter determines the RAF. The MIR approach defines reactivity where NMOG control is the most effective strategy in reducing ozone concentrations, and assumes it is not important to define reactivity at other conditions, i.e., where NO_x is the limiting precursor.

This study used the Carnegie/California Institute of Technology airshed model to evaluate whether the RAF-adjusted AFV emissions result in ozone impacts equivalent to those of CFV emissions. A matrix of two ozone episodes in the South Coast Air Basin (SoCAB) of California, two base emission inventories, and exhaust emissions from three alternative fuels that meet the first level of the low emission vehicle standards bounds the expected range of conditions. Although very good agreement was found previously for individual NMOG species,² this study noted deviations of up to ±15 percent from the equal ozone impacts for any vehicle/fuel combination required by the California regulations. These deviations appear to be attributable to differences in spatial and temporal patterns of emissions between vehicle fleets, rather than a problem with the MIR approach. The first formally adopted RAF, a value of 0.41 for 85 percent methanol/15 percent gasoline-fueled vehicles, includes a 10 percent increase based on the airshed modeling. The correction to the RAF is different for other fuels and may be different for air basins other than the SoCAB.     

Development of visibility forecasting modeling framework for the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia using Canada’s Regional Air Quality Deterministic Prediction System

Visibility degradation, one of the most noticeable indicators of poor air quality, can occur despite relatively low levels of particulate matter when the risk to human health is low. The availability of timely and reliable visibility forecasts can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the anticipated air quality conditions to better inform local jurisdictions and the public. This paper describes the development of a visibility forecasting modeling framework, which leverages the existing air quality and meteorological forecasts from Canada’s operational Regional Air Quality Deterministic Prediction System (RAQDPS) for the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. A baseline model (GM-IMPROVE) was constructed using the revised IMPROVE algorithm based on unprocessed forecasts from the RAQDPS. Three additional prototypes (UMOS-HYB, GM-MLR, GM-RF) were also developed and assessed for forecast performance of up to 48 hr lead time during various air quality and meteorological conditions. Forecast performance was assessed by examining their ability to provide both numerical and categorical forecasts in the form of 1-hr total extinction and Visual Air Quality Ratings (VAQR), respectively. While GM-IMPROVE generally overestimated extinction more than twofold, it had skill in forecasting the relative species contribution to visibility impairment, including ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate. Both statistical prototypes, GM-MLR and GM-RF, performed well in forecasting 1-hr extinction during daylight hours, with correlation coefficients (R) ranging from 0.59 to 0.77. UMOS-HYB, a prototype based on postprocessed air quality forecasts without additional statistical modeling, provided reasonable forecasts during most daylight hours. In terms of categorical forecasts, the best prototype was approximately 75 to 87% correct, when forecasting for a condensed three-category VAQR. A case study, focusing on a poor visual air quality yet low Air Quality Health Index episode, illustrated that the statistical prototypes were able to provide timely and skillful visibility forecasts with lead time up to 48 hr.

Implications: This study describes the development of a visibility forecasting modeling framework, which leverages the existing air quality and meteorological forecasts from Canada’s operational Regional Air Quality Deterministic Prediction System. The main applications include tourism and recreation planning, input into air quality management programs, and educational outreach. Visibility forecasts, when supplemented with the existing air quality and health based forecasts, can assist jurisdictions to anticipate the visual air quality impacts as perceived by the public, which can potentially assist in formulating the appropriate air quality bulletins and recommendations.     

Comment on “Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl as an Antiknock: Composition and Fate of Manganese Exhaust Products”

In an article published in the August 1975, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association entitled “Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl as an Antiknock: Composition and Pate of Manganese Exhaust Products,” the authors conclude that, “… use of MMT in gasoline will result in no public health hazards, because of the low toxicity of manganese and because of the very low concentration of MMT that would be used in gasoline …. If all gasoline contained 0.1 g Mn/gal, the amount of airborne Mn its exhaust would contribute to urban areas would contribute to urban areas would be only 0.02-0.2 μg/m³, with a median value of 0.05 μg/m³.”     

Current Trends in Federal Interagency Relations Concerning Air Pollution

Under the first Federal Air Pollution Act of 1955, which assigned the responsibility for developing a national program to the Public Health Service, a significant phase of the program involved other federal agencies through a series of contractual relationships. These interdepartmental relationships were limited however, to the objective of capitalizing on the diverse research facilities and specialized competencies within the federal establishment, as a means of accelerating the research and technical assistance program authorized under the act. With the passage of the Clean Air Act of 1963, a major new emphasis has been added to the federal air pollution control program—application of technical knowledge, through broadly accelerated control programs. This emphasis is reflected in current trends in the nature and type of the Public Health Service’s developing relationships with other federal agencies. The emerging PHS programs to prevent and control air pollution from federal facilities, the PHS role in preventing pollution arising from transportation systems aided under the new Urban Mass Transportation Act, and other developing interagency relationships and problem areas are discussed in this context.